EN
Archaeological excavations on Ostrów Lednicki and its immediate vicinity have led to the discovery of an impressive array of early medieval artefacts related to the sphere of war. Among them are different kinds of weapons such as swords, spearheads, and axes, as well as elements of protective equipment, including a conical helmet and a complete chainmail shirt. The corpus of artefacts related to warriors and warfare also includes riding gear in the form of spurs, stirrups, and bridle parts. Although over the last several decades archaeologists have devoted considerable attention to the aforementioned weapons, relatively little has been said about the role of equestrian warriors on Ostrów Lednicki as well as the gear they used. Therefore, the goal of this paper is to cast new light on riding equipment from this important site by re-evaluating some of the former ideas concerning luxurious specimens found in the course of underwater excavations, as well as presenting and analysing the latest finds obtained as a result of the ongoing ‘Lednica Project’. The opening sections of the paper focus on a number of ‘iconic’ elements of riding equipment discovered on Ostrów Lednicki. These include an iron cheekpiece, a fragmentarily preserved cheekpiece made of copper alloy with a zoomorphic motif, two stirrups lavishly decorated with silver and copper inlay, as well as cross-shaped distributors. The iron cheekpiece from Ostrów Lednicki was formerly believed to originate from Scandinavia. In light of our current state of knowledge, however, this interpretation is unjustifi ed. Iron cheekpieces were broadly used in early medieval Europe, including Scandinavia, Germany, Poland and other localities. Over the last decade or so, a number of cheekpieces representing various types have been identified in Greater Poland and Pomerania, leading to the conclusion that these elements of riding equipment were produced locally and probably belonged to Slavic riders. In light of the above, there is no reason whatsoever to consider the iron cheekpiece as an ‘import’. Another cheekpiece from Ostrów Lednicki – in this case made of copper alloy – was also wrongly interpreted as a foreign object by previous researchers. Its discoverers believed it stemmed from eastern Europe (Rus’), but in light of new analyses and recently published analogies from Greater Poland and Pomerania, as well as the characteristic decoration (originally portraying two bird-like creatures with snake tails), it is now clear that the specimen in question was manufactured in the local cultural milieu. Th e fantastic beast motif probably held symbolic significance, and in terms of its stylistic features it can be regarded as representing the Western Slavic animal style. The misleading tendency to label luxurious riding equipment discovered in Poland as stemming from non-Slavic cultural contexts pertains also to two stirrups from Ostrów Lednicki. Both specimens were formerly regarded as originating from Scandinavia or Baltic lands, even though no direct parallels exist in those areas. In light of new investigations conducted in the present paper, however, it is clear that the stirrups represent types that were widely used across Europe, which means that it is impossible to pin down the exact place of their origin using just typological criteria. Nevertheless, their characteristic decorative features – which in both cases include schematic snake motifs (with stylistic and semantic parallels in the early medieval archaeological material from Poland) – demonstrate unequivocally that they were decorated in line with the principles of the Western Slavic animal style. Given this, it is justified to reinterpret them as items of local manufacture. The last reinterpretation discussed in the opening sections of the present paper pertains to small cross-shaped items made of copper alloy. Previously, these objects were regarded as crosses and viewed in the context of religious transformations that took place in Poland in the tenth and eleventh centuries. New analyses of the overall form, size and material qualities of the said specimens – as well as an investigation of their various parallels from other sites – indicates that rather than viewing them as Christian crosses, they should be seen as parts of riding equipment. Most likely their purpose was to connect and/or distribute straps of the horse bridle. After a revaluation of former ideas concerning early medieval equestrian equipment discovered on Ostrów Lednicki and demonstrating that the majority of the finds ought to be regarded as stemming from the local Slavic milieu, the following part of the present paper focuses on a number of previously unpublished items related to horse riding equipment and presents new specimens discovered in the course of the ‘Lednica Project’. Among them is a cross-shaped strap distributor of the ‘Lutomiersk type’, a square shaped bridle mount, a nomadic strap distributor, four elongated strap mounts, and a fragmentarily preserved cheek piece. Despite its poor state of preservation, the cross-shaped strap distributor from the ‘Lednica Project’ ought to be regarded as a very interesting object. Two identical specimens were discovered in 1949 in a lavishly furnished inhumation grave in the cemetery of Lutomiersk in Central Poland – the cross shaped distributors were part of a luxurious bridle with an iron bit and copper alloy cheekpieces carrying zoomorphic designs (interestingly, the designs are very similar to those seen on one of the aforementioned stirrups from Ostrów Lednicki). Apart from Lutomiersk, one further specimen of exactly the same type was discovered in Czermno in south-east Poland. The characteristic decoration of all these distributors, as well as their find-contexts, leave no doubt that they ought to be seen as artefacts of Slavic manufacture. The square shaped mount discovered in the course of the ‘Lednica Project’ is decorated with four symmetrically-distributed palmette motifs. Like the item described above, it was probably originally part of a horse bridle. Three identical specimens are known from the early medieval stronghold at Giecz, which strongly suggest that they were all produced locally. Regardless of the fragmentary nature of the nomadic strap distributor, it is possible to reconstruct its original appearance using analogous finds from the nearby cemetery at Dziekanowice and from Stargard. Similar items are also known from funerary contexts in Ukraine and Lithuania, strongly suggesting that the origin of this type of distributor is in eastern Europe. The specimen from Ostrów Lednicki may have, perhaps, belonged to an eastern equestrian warrior who came on some kind of mission to the Piast State, but it may also have belonged to someone else who simply travelled through these areas. It is interesting, however, that excavations in Greater Poland have yielded two finds of this kind, suggesting that this area’s contacts with the East may have been stronger and more diverse than previously thought. Although the four elongated strap mounts discovered in the course of the ‘Lednica Project’ are unique, they share formal and stylistic similarities with other mounts found in Greater Poland and Pomerania. Two of these specimens are made of iron and inlaid with silver and copper, while the other two are made of copper alloy (one is cut from a sheet of metal and the other is cast). Most likely all of these artefacts were originally part of horse bridles. The last find discussed in the present paper survives in the form of a very small copper alloy fragment the surface of which is decorated with angular lines flanking a centrally-placed circle motif. The shape of this specimen is reminiscent of copper alloy cheekpieces known from a number of localities in Greater Poland and Pomerania, and it is thus very likely that it was originally indeed a cheekpiece. The final sections of the present paper explore the symbolic qualities of selected elements of riding equipment in the Western Slavic world, specifically in the Piast State. Using Howard Williams’ theory of ‘material citation’, it is argued that the creators of some of the most luxurious specimens consciously employed similar decorative motifs (which are sometimes schematised) with the intention to communicate meanings associated with the sphere of pre-Christian belief. For instance, the ornaments on the ‘Lutomiersk type’ cross-shaped strap distributors correspond closely with those seen on the square-shaped mount, as well as those on kaptorgas (amulet boxes) from Borucin and Gdańsk. They all appear to portray birds flying in four cardinal directions. Due to the fact that in Slavic folklore birds played prominent roles in the process of the world’s creation, the said motif may have had mythological and/or cosmological significance. In conclusion, apart from analysing new and previously unseen material, this paper has revisited and reinterpreted former misleading claims concerning luxurious riding equipment from Ostrów Lednicki and opened new paths for a better understanding of its origin, purpose, and symbolic significance. It is hoped that these revaluations will help future scholars in correctly identifying archaeological finds associated with Slavic equestrian warriors and in weaving a more complete and diverse image of early medieval warfare in the Piast State and beyond.