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EN
On 26 April 1994, the Lithuanian and Polish presidents signed in Vilnius the Treaty between the Republic of Lithuania and the Republic of Poland on friendly relations and good neighbourly cooperation. The Lithuanian press devoted much attention to the progress of negotiations in drafting this document and to its ratification by the Lithuanian Seimas in October 1994. During 1993–1994, the Lithuanian newspapers Lietuvos rytas, Respublika, Lietuvos aidas, Tiesa, Kurier Wileński, also several smaller newspapers, such as Voruta, Gimtasis kraštas, Atgimimas, SSI, Amžius, published the articles devoted to a discussion of the Lithuanian-Polish relations. This publication aims at conducting an analysis of the Lithuanian press and reviewing the articles devoted to the drafting, signature and ratification of the Treaty between the Republic of Lithuania and the Republic of Poland on friendly relations and good neighbourly cooperation, as well as to the political situation in Lithuania at the time of the drafting and signature of the mentioned agreement.
EN
This paper seeks to demonstrate the gradual transformation that the United Nations peacekeeping has undergone during the post-Cold War era. The recent peacekeepers not only keep, but also build the peace in certain circumstances. The study investigates this shift from traditional peacekeeping to second generation peacekeeping by focusing on the peacekeeping concept, the historical evolution of the mission, the reasons behind this transformation, and the differences between those two types of missions from a comparative perspective as well as the future challenges.
EN
This article addresses the problem of the legality and legitimacy of humanitarian intervention in the light of contemporary international law and practice. The Author discusses this issue in the context of a potential conflict between State’s sovereignty and its obligations under international human rights law. He points to the new concepts aimed at the legitimization, form the point of view of international law, of the use of force in defence of humanitarian values.
Cybersecurity and Law
|
2021
|
vol. 6
|
issue 2
151-166
EN
There is more than one reason why South-East European States should clarify their public positions on the applicability of sovereignty as a principle or as the rule of international law while addressing the growing ambiguity in cyberspace. The article argues that strategically and legally it is in the SEE States’ interest to step up and fill the vacuum in ever needed opinio iuris on the applicability of sovereignty in cyberspace, particularly after some leading NATO States took an opposing course on the issue. Explaining the evolution in cyberspace and how this affects the Westphalian concept of sovereignty under international law the article introduces the importance of the main thesis. It then provides the rationale for the argument and explains why it is in the SEE States interest to act and express their position on the applicability of sovereignty in cyberspace under international law.
EN
The Act of 8 July, 2005 on Enforcement of the Right to Compensation for Leaving Real Estate Properties Beyond the Borders of the Republic of Poland brings to a close more than a half-century long process of settling accounts by the Polish State with the resident of the area east of the Bug River, as regarding their property left behind beyond the country’s eastern border as a result of World War II. In the course of this process, which is a consequence of the so-called “republican agreements” concluded in 1944, a series of problems arose as a result of imperfections of legal regulations which, over decades, aimed at a definitive closure of the settlements concerning property left beyond the Bug River. Among the issues raising doubts at the stage of practical application of the aforesaid regulations one may point out, by way of example, retroactive inclusion in the scope of the 2005 Act of proceedings instigated prior to its entry into force (that is pursuant to different acts of law) which were not completed until that moment; the legal nature of the term stipulated in the 2005 Act as the final deadline for filing claims for awarding the right to compensation; the nature of the term in which to name the person entitled to such compensation in cases where such right lies with more than one person; and finally – the subjective scope of the regulation and the consequences of the unconstitutional character of the requirement which calls for being a resident of the former territory of the Republic of Poland as on 1 September, 1939 as a prerequisite for entitlement to compensation. The crucial and key question, which raises further doubts, seems to be the application of the 2005 Act to proceedings instigated but not ended prior to its entry into force. A uniform and consistent application of the new Act to previously instigated proceedings poses a challenge to bodies of public administration and courts of law, particularly in the light of conflicting requirements stipulated in other acts of law – and these are not only requirements of a strictly formal nature – concerning the claims. An analysis of adjudications passed by bodies of public administration and courts of law, however, leads to the conclusion that the doubts and divergences arising as a result of application of the new Act are usually decided in favour of the claimants.
EN
In the article the author examines state filtering of electronic content in terms of its compliance with international law, especially with provisions guaranteeing the freedom of expression and access to information. The White House implemented program “Internet Freedom”, whose aim is to introduce software enabling the circumvention of local content control in “filtering countries”, is subject to thorough analysis. The analysis covers recent (2011) events in Egypt, where the world’s first successful attempt at shutting down the Internet within state borders was completed. Although enforced through legitimate state actions this Internet shut-down was circumvented with the use of Google-introduced technology. The technology and its use seemed to meet the ideas behind the “Internet Freedom” program, introduced by the White House a few month prior to the Egypt events. In the course of argument the author discusses international responsibility for the possible breach of their international obligations by both: Egypt and the U.S. She provides for the assessment of the legality of the actions of Egyptian authorities’ introducing an Internate filter that constitutes an infringement of freedom of expression, as well as the responsibility of United States for their failure to halt a U.S. legal entity enabling users to circumvent the legitimate Egyptian technology. The author argues that the character of the global network requires a redefinition of state sovereignty, especially in the context of human rights protection on-line. An idea introduced by R.H. Weber of “shared sovereignty” is mentioned, as it reflects the basic principle of international Internet law: the principle of multistakeholder governance.
PL
Celem tej publikacji jest zaprezentowanie współczesnych obaw dotyczących rozprzestrzeniania broni masowego rażenia oraz zagrożenia terrorystycznego. Część pierwsza wprowadza definicje oraz terminy w kontekście historycznym, pokrótce wspominając o wybranych aspektach oddziaływania globalizacji na wysiłki skierowane przeciw rozprzestrzenianiu wyżej wymienionych zagrożeń. Kolejna sekcja odnosi się do prawa międzynarodowego, które dotyczy broni masowego rażenia i współczesnych obaw dotyczących rozprzestrzeniania tej broni. Można tutaj znaleźć, także w kontekście historycznym, opis wysiłków międzynarodowych w celu zakazania badań nad bronią masowego rażenia, opis jej rozwoju oraz spis użytkowania. Następnie znajduje się analiza skuteczności tych mechanizmów zaprezentowana przy użyciu przykładów. Okres po drugiej wojnie światowej omówiony jest w bardziej szczegółowy sposób, przez zestawienie najbardziej istotnych traktatów i konwencji, jak również grup, inicjatyw oraz rezolucji dotyczących omawianego tematu. Dalsza część tego rozdziału dotyczy stosowania się do międzynarodowego prawa oraz przepisów przez kraje, grupy oraz jednostki, co pokazuje typowe sposoby rozprzestrzeniania broni masowego rażenia. Ostatnia sekcja zajmuje się potencjalnym zagrożeniem ze strony ataku terrorystycznego przy użyciu broni masowego rażenia, analizując każdą możliwą broń w arsenale broni masowego rażenia z punktu widzenia terrorystów. Zostały omówione trudności związane z uzyskaniem i produkcją takiej broni, zalety i wady powszechnie stosowanych metod jej użycia oraz jej skutki wywołane w wyniku hipotetycznego ataku terrorystycznego. Zostały także wzięte pod uwagę ataki na cele miękkie w celu wytworzenia „efektu użycia broni masowego rażenia”. Podsumowując, publikacja ta analizuje skuteczność wysiłków wspólnoty międzynarodowej w celu kontroli przepływu broni oraz materiałów masowego rażenia, umieszcza globalizację w kontekście rozprzestrzeniania tej broni a działania radykalnych grup we współczesnej perspektywie, wyliczając sposoby użycia, które mogłyby one wykorzystać i badając wszystkie aspekty możliwego ataku.
PL
Artykuł poświęcony jest kwestii filozoficznego uzasadnienia oraz filozoficznego kontekstu ochrony prawa autorskiego w odniesieniu do międzynarodowych traktatów i prawa Unii Europejskiej. Praca podzielona jest na trzy części. Pierwsza część to omówienie uregulowania prawa autorskiego na poziomie międzynarodowym. Ponadto przedstawione zostały tam źródła prawa autorskiego obowiązujące dla Unii Europejskiej. Druga część pracy to filozoficzne uzasadnienie ochrony prawa autorskiego. Zaprezentowano i objaśniono tam różne perspektywy, koncepcje i poglądy filozoficzne dotyczące omawianej kwestii, które mogą być pomocne w zrozumieniu poruszanej tu dziedziny prawa. Wnioski dotyczące materii filozoficznego uzasadnienia ochrony prawa autorskiego w odniesieniu do międzynarodowych traktatów i prawa Unii Europejskiej przedstawione są w ostatnim rozdziale pracy.
EN
The article concerns philosophical justification and philosophical background of copyright protection relating to international treaties and the law of European Union. This paper is divided into three parts. The first one presents the regulation of copyright law on the international level. Moreover, the European Union’s sources of copyright law are demonstrated. The second part concerns philosophical justification of the copyright protection. Various philosophical stands and concepts that can be helpful with better understanding of this branch of law are presented and explained. The conclusions on philosophical justification of copyright protection in regard to the international treaties and the EU law are shown in the final chapter.
EN
The paper aims at showing that a lower share capital in limited liability companies can be a successful tool for overcoming the consequences of an economic crisis. In a period of economic turmoil insolvency is more than a simple risk. For such a reason the limited liability company shareholders, thanks to the complete financial autonomy given by the share capital, have a shield from the legitimate expectations of the creditors. The share capital protects the entrepreneur and at the same time allows faster fresh starts; nevertheless, in order for that to happen, the share capital cannot be an additional burden, instead has to be a simple formal element. The article demonstrates that in the last 50 years is visible a shift in the concept and function of the share capital. During the 50's of the past century, the share capital was considered as a guarantee for the company's creditors. Nowadays the European legislators across Europe are heading to consider the share capital as a mere formal element disconnected by any due quantity. (original abstract)
EN
The article presents selected aspects of the internationalization of Polish law in the area of local self-government after 1989. The scope of the subject is very wide, thus the author decided to choose the determinants which have directly influenced the present functioning of local self-government in the Republic of Poland. The aim of the study is to present the role of Polish international obligations in the shaping of the legislative process, and to show the significance of these commitments in the present self-government system in Poland. To realize the established aim, the author introduces the reader to the regulations of the Polish Constitution which refer to the local government and the place taken by international law in the internal legal order. In further subchapters, the author describes the impact of the legislative activity of the European Union and the Council of Europe on the shape of local government in Poland in order to summarize the conclusions of the analysis. The research was conducted by using the dogmatic method, and by analyzing the available literature in the subject matter. After 1989, due to the social and political changes, the Polish legislation (including the Constitution) opened up to the international law, which has had a significant impact on the functioning of public administration in Poland. Currently, the legal bases for the functioning of the administration in Poland are not only acts issued by the Polish Parliament and Government, but also the norms of the European Union and international law. Increasing activity in the field of EU legislation means de novo that the Polish public administration system is still evolving.
PL
W artykule zostały przedstawione wybrane przez autora aspekty związane z umiędzynarodowieniem prawa polskiego w aspekcie ustroju samorządu terytorialnego po 1989 r. Zakres tematyczny wybranego obszaru badawczego jest bardzo szeroki, dlatego autor wybrał tylko te determinanty, które bezpośrednio wpłynęły na obecny kształt funkcjonowania samorządu terytorialnego w Polsce. Celem opracowania jest przedstawienie czytelnikowi roli zobowiązań międzynarodowych RP w kształtowaniu procesu prawotwórczego oraz ukazanie znaczenia tych zobowiązań w obecnym kształcie ustroju samorządowego w Polsce. Realizując założony cel autor wprowadza czytelnika w regulacje zawarte w konstytucji RP dotyczące samorządu terytorialnego oraz miejsca prawa międzynarodowego w wewnętrznym porządku prawnym. W kolejnych podrozdziałach autor opisuje wpływ działalności prawotwórczej Unii Europejskiej i Rady Europy na kształt obecnego samorządu terytorialnego w Polsce, aby w podsumowaniu wyprowadzić wnioski z przeprowadzonej analizy. Autor prowadził badania metodą prawno-dogmatyczną oraz przeanalizował dostępną literaturę w rzeczonym zakresie. W związku z przemianami społeczno - politycznymi po 1989 roku prawodawstwo polskie, w tym Konstytucja, otworzyły się na prawo międzynarodowe, co wywarło istotny wpływ na podstawy funkcjonowania administracji publicznej w Polsce. Podstawą prawną działania administracji w Polsce są dziś nie tylko akty wydawane przez polski parlament i rząd, ale także normy prawa unijnego i normy prawa międzynarodowego. Coraz większy udział działalności prawotwórczej Unii Europejskiej powoduje de novo kształtowanie się polskiego systemu administracji publicznej.
EN
One of the conditions for the effectiveness of guarantees attributed to peoples by international environmental law is their proper communication aimed at enabling these peoples to participate in the management of public affairs. The essence of communication with indigenous peoples is to obtain their consent to undertake operations that may carry a risk of harm to the environment. Communication with the EU nations takes place, on the other hand, by means of the EU secondary legislation. Although the subject in each of these cases is the peoples, and the purpose – conservation of the environment, different conceptual tools and methods of action apply. It is therefore reasonable to answer the question as to how these tools and methods enrich or limit the realization of claims in the linguistic aspect. The purpose of the paper is to reconstruct the assumptions about how to communicate with the peoples and to explore the conceptual framework that determines the concept of linguistic justice in international environmental law.
EN
The Author presents a legal analysis of self-determination in international law. It is presented both through a historical and a modern perspective, recalling i.a. such cases as Kosovo, Quebec, Palestinian state in statu nascendi
PL
Autor chciałby zaprezentować analizę prawną prawa do samostanowienia narodów w prawie międzynarodowym. Temat omówiono zarówno w perspektywie historycznej, jak i współczesnej, powołując się m.in. na takie przypadki jak Kosowo, Quebec oraz Państwo Palestyńskie in statu nascendi.
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