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EN
The aim of this anthropological essay is to present the emotional and intellectual processes accompanying me over the years of field research among the Bolivian Moré, who belong to the Chapacura language family. The narrative structure is twofold: addressing both topics and issues that motivated me intellectually to do the research, and the attitudes of Moré themselves, as well as conceptual categories around which their narratives seem to focus. Some passages of this essay take a more analytical form, as I focus on the impor- tance of unpredictable events, the context, and the transformation of field experience over time during the research process. I conclude that both sides of the fieldwork encounter face the task of getting to know the Other. Each gets to know the Other in a particular way through conceptual categories and ways of acting that result from their current way of being in the world.
EN
Bolesław Kaprocki was teacher in the 1930s and after II World War. In 1938, he wrote „School’s lies”. This book was never reprinted. His academic achievement are almost unknown. In „School’s lies” Kaprocki describes the problem of lies committed by students. He studies the social and biological origins of lies. He distinguish 2 types lies: unthruth and lie of will. The child’s false statements under the influence of animism are of an „untruth” type. „Lie of will” is commited consciously and accompanied by specific goal. A lie must be considered individually and socially. The most common source of lies is fear of the consequences. The author of the article analizes the problem of lie and Kaprocki’s pedagogical program from a pragmatic perspective, pedagogical trend and philosophical position represented by John Dewey. In pragmatic philosophy, the approach to thuth is flexible. Generally, utility is the measure of truth. This flexibility has its limits. Dewey analysed objective historical and social processes. According to Dewey, when social system change, the awareness of society changes. Magical thinking in primitive people helps them explain natural processes. In the course of social and economic development, magical thinking is replaced by science. A similar evolution concerns the development of the child’s cousciousness. Kaprocki was much inspired by Dewey’s pragmatism and idea of experimental teaching. He postulated an individual approach to the student. He took into account the student’s interests, imagination and his intellectual, moral and biological development. A similar method should detect lies. Kaprocki proposes solutions to counteract lies. He examines the impact of different types of punishment. He rejects corporal and natural punishment. He proposes „a moral punishment”. Punishment should appeal to conscience and stimulate moral development. Enforcing this punishment requires consistent bahavior of the educator. Teacher must possess authority. Kaprocki also touched upon the problem of racial segregation. According to Kaprocki, the course of intellectual development is different in representatives of various races. This creates conflicts among the students. This problem is moral if we accept Herbart’s assumption that the development of intelligence determines morality.
EN
In this article we analyse factors that help interpret silence and speaking in different cultures. Economic activities and lifestyle related to natural conditions as well as beliefs are crucial here. In terms of speaking and silence, a relatively good distinction can be made between peoples traditionally engaged in hunting-gathering and agriculture, and the modern Western code of communication that has developed from the latter. The modern code does not tolerate silence and non-speaking very well, considering it either as expression of impoliteness, stupidity or lack of sincerity. For indigenous peoples silence clearly has a magical function in order not to be threatened by ambivalent animistic agents. This also explains the greater carefulness of indigenous peoples in expressing their emotions. For the same reason, in animistic cultures, which are not so human-centred, the usual communication situations (meetings, departures, making compliments) and the corresponding speech acts are very diffuse, minimalist or non-existent. In (monotheistic) agricultural cultures the sphere of spirit beings has generally been demonized, and the norm of silent behaviour that reflects it has become incomprehensible or interpreted as inappropriate. The Veps living in north-western Russia have been in close contact with Russian peasant culture for more than 1,000 years. The relatively emotional and speech-oriented Russian culture has undoubtedly had an impact on the Veps. On the other hand, the Finno-Ugric animistic norm and the corresponding tendency to speak less or remain silent can be perceived. It also seems that from Russians the Veps have acquired speech acts used at meetings and departures – greetings, farewells, blessings, formulas that close and delimit situations, and so on. The corresponding words and phrases taken from Russian also refer to borrowing. Because of the Russian influence the interpersonal relations of the Veps are not that diffuse as those of the non-agricultural indigenous peoples. Nevertheless, as the forest and beliefs related to it are still very central in Vepsian folk life, the Veps are very careful in their ways of speaking because of the animistic spirits around, which very much determines their behaviour in general. In the fieldwork situations we have noticed that silence/speaking significantly depends also on the social role and profession of the informant. There exist also situations that require silence (for example eating, certain works related to starting of something, getting on the road). Our experiences show that silence may arise also when issues related to death and the supernatural sphere are touched upon.
EN
Oskar Loorits (1900–1961) was a versatile researcher who in international folkloristics was mainly known for his religious studies. He developed an interest in folk belief in his student days at the University of Tartu, where he had a chance to participate in an expedition and record Livonian folklore. Already in 1926 Loorits defended his doctoral thesis on Livonian folk belief. He also became one of the advocates for the cultural identity of the small Livonian nation. On Loorits’s initiative the Estonian Folklore Archives were established, which assembled older folkloric collections; also, the managing system was created and collections were supplemented. By the beginning of World War II, it was an internationally known and smoothly operating institution. Loorits left for Sweden and continued work in exile. The majority of Loorits’s research uses comparative-historical methods, in comparison with the folkloric material of the peoples of the world. Most of his research was published in German: Livische Märchen und Sagenvarianten (1926), Der norddeutsche Klabautermann in Otsbaltikum (1931), Pharaos Heer in der Volksüberlieferung I (1935), Gedanken-, Tat- und Worttabu bei den estnischen Fischern (1939), etc. Some of the most renowned works, which have also received criticism, are, for example, Eesti rahvausundi maailmavaade (Estnische Volksdichtung und Mythologie (1932)) and Grundzüge der estnischen Volksglaubens, which was compiled in Sweden in 1943–1960. As a personality, Loorits was impulsive in expressing his ideas, as well as articulate and remarkably persuasive. These features characterize his cultural and socio-political journalistic works. As a national ideologist, Loorits was interested in defining the ancient worldview of Estonians and Finno-Ugric peoples, yet idealized the centuries-long tenacity of the principle of animistic equality. It is not surprising that his ideas about Estonians as a nature nation gave rise to debates and are also under discussion today in connection with the problems of the sense of identity, environmental protection and nature conservation.
EN
Alfred Irving Hallowell (1892–1974), a seasoned researcher of the Ojibwe culture, is known today primarily as a precursor of the anthropological theory of the “new animism”. A student of Franz Boas and a friend of Edward Sapir, he was not only a prominent figure of the culture and personality school, but also proved to be one of the most interesting psychological anthropologists of the 20th century. His works on the Ojibwe indigenous taxonomy prefigured the achievements of ethnoscience, and those on the evolution of human behavior adumbrated the development of sociobiology. Conducted in the 1930s, Hallowell’s fieldwork among the Berens River Ojibwe resulted in numerous academic papers, one of which – the 1960 Ojibwa Ontology, Behavior, and World View – years later became particularly influential in anthropological research on animism. This article presents Hallowell’s intellectual biography and discusses his research on the Ojibwe culture along with the concepts he used or developed, concepts that for many researchers became the key to unlocking new conceptualizations of the problem of animism.
EN
In this article the author synthetically surveys the most important problems of linguistic “humanisation of reality”. Various aspects and forms of anthropocentrism are analysed on the basis of linguistic data, texts of folklore, belief tales, and ritualised practices. Anthropocentrism is viewed from the inside (from humans to the world) but also from the outside (from the world to humans). This is because humans not only make the world familiar to themselves by imprinting their mark on it: they also measure themselves to the world of animals, plants, or artefacts. Two aspects are thus discussed of the reciprocal relations between humans and animals, plants, wildlife, and matter, with a focus on linguistic and cultural markers of humanising the latter, contrasted with humans being assimilated to those aspects of reality. Two aspects are also discussed of the relation between humans and the world of the divine and the demonic, with a focus on the linguistic and cultural exponents of the humanisation of demons, God, and saints vs. the demonisation and deification of humans.Finally, referring to the contrasting views of Vyacheslav Ivanov (who accepts the anthropic world order and the idea of anthropocentrism in its theological aspect) and Miriana Detelić (for whom the maxim of man being “the measure of all things” is harmful, for it justifies the destruction of biosphere on the cosmic scale), the author claims that the problems of locating humans in the world and establishing the boundaries between humans and other inhabitants of the Universe are topical also in this day and age.
PL
Autorka przedstawia w syntetycznej formie najważniejsze problemy związane z językowym „uczłowieczaniem rzeczywistości”. Różne aspekty i różne formy antropocentryzmu analizuje na podstawie danych językowych, tekstów folkloru, podań wierzeniowych i rytualnych praktyk. Ujmuje antropocentryzm zarówno od wewnątrz, jak też od zewnątrz, tzn. nie tylko od człowieka do świata, ale i od świata do człowieka. Bowiem człowiek nie tylko „przyswaja” sobie świat, nakłada na niego swoje piętno, ale też „przymierza” samego siebie do świata zwierząt, roślin, czy rzeczy materialnych. Kolejno omawiane są więc dwa aspekty wzajemnych relacji człowiek a zwierzę, roślina, przyroda, świat materii z pokazaniem językowych i kulturowych wykładników uczłowieczania zwierząt, roślin, przyrody i rzeczy w kontraście do upodobniania człowieka do zwierząt, roślin, przyrody, przedmiotów; oraz dwa aspekty relacji człowiek a świat demoniczny i boski z pokazaniem językowych i kulturowych wykładników uczłowieczania demonów, Boga i świętych w kontraście do demonologizacji i ubóstwiania człowieka.W zakończeniu, nawiązując do kontrastowych opinii Wiaczesława Iwanowa (który akceptuje antropiczną zasadę układu świata i ideę antropocentryzmu w jego aspekcie teleologicznym) i Miriany Detelić (która maksymę «człowiek jest miarą wszystkich rzeczy» uznaje za szkodliwą, bo usprawiedliwia niszczenie biosfery w skali kosmicznej), autorka artykułu podkreśla, że problemy miejsca człowieka w świecie i granic, oddzielających człowieka od innych mieszkańców Wszechświata, są aktualne także dla naszego czasu.
EN
The forest kindergarten is different from other traditional types of kindergarten, therefore teachers there should have special qualifications, skills and requirements. In this article I provide the profile of teacher in a forest kindergarten and describe some required skills and working conditions in natural environment. The teacher plays the role of an animator in the sensual world and is a representative of the world of values. I accentuate the animism and childish fears of nature and describe the basic required knowledge for teachers in a forest kindergarten. The article shows the dangers expected to happen in forests and how to overcome them.
PL
Leśne przedszkola znacząco różnią się od tradycyjnych placówek, co implikuje konieczność posiadania przez nauczycielki (-i) tych alternatywnych ośrodków specyficznych kompetencji oraz spełniania innych wymagań niż wychowawcy w tradycyjnych przedszkolach. Artykuł przybliża sylwetkę nauczycielki(-a) leśnego przedszkola, ukazuje stawiane przed nią (nim) oczekiwania i warunki pracy w lesie. Zwrócono również uwagę na zakres podstawowej wiedzy nauczyciela „Waldkindergarten”, rozpoznawanie niebezpieczeństw w lesie oraz dziecięce lęki wobec przyrody. Ukazano także osobę wychowawcy jako animatora zmysłowego postrzegania świata przez dzieci.
EN
The Japanese culture is often portrayed as unique, in particular when compared to broadly-understood Western culture. It is important to notice, however, that the main trait of the Japanese culture is its openness towards outside influences and the ability to modify them to fit better with the Japanese system of values. The same could be applied to the Japanese aesthetics, which concernsm various aspects of life, not only the ones that would be described as art in Western culture. The contemporary Japanese culture (and the aesthetics along with it) is occasionally a combination of tradition and modern ideas; the works of popular culture, which includes comics and animation, may hold the most interesting cases in that regard. This article describes the issues of the Japanese aesthetics in Mushishi, a comic book by Yuki Urushibara. The author, while inspired by the classical works of Japanese literature and legendary tales, presents her own stories, in which the primary aesthetic value is the harmony between human and nature, sometimes represented by the supernatural beings known as mushi.
PL
W obrębie nowego animizmu proponuje się podejście do podmiotowości odmienne od ufundowanego na tradycji judeochrześcijańskiej, inną relację między naturą a kulturą, światem ludzkim i nie-ludzkim oraz ożywionym i nieożywionym. Elementy tego nurtu, peryferyjnego w kulturze polskiej, można odnaleźć w filmowych obrazach pogańszczyzny nadających mu status zjawiska wypartego bądź oswojonego przez chrześcijański kontekst. Twórcy współczesnych filmów polskich odwołujących się do tej tradycji szukają w niej spojrzenia na świat alternatywnego względem ujęcia hierarchicznego, dualistycznego, opartego na modelu antropocentrycznym. Dzieła te łączy z ową tradycją egalitarny stosunek do świata zwierzęcego (Pokot Agnieszki Holland), szacunek do sprawstwa roślin (Szarlatan Agnieszki Holland), wiara w obecność duchów wykraczająca poza kontekst chrześcijański (Śniegu już nigdy nie będzie oraz Body/Ciało Małgorzaty Szumowskiej), wrażliwość na środowisko (Wyspa Katarzyny Klimkiewicz i Domingi Sotomayor Castillo) czy odniesienie do kultur pierwotnych (Walser Zbigniewa Libery). Jednocześnie autorzy tych dzieł dokonują jej rewaloryzacji, traktując ją jak „perspektywę ratunkową” w obliczu współczesnego kryzysu cywilizacyjnego.
EN
The perspective of new animism offers an approach to the subjectivity and the relation between nature and culture, the human and non-human, as well as the animate and the inanimate, that differs from the one founded on the Judeo-Christian tradition. Marginal in Polish culture, this current can be found in film representations of paganism that nevertheless lend it the status of a repressed phenomenon or one tamed by the context of Christianity. The authors of contemporary Polish films that refer to this tradition look for an alternative to a world that is hierarchical, dualistic and based on an anthropocentric model. They connect with paganism though their egalitarian attitude towards animals (Agnieszka Holland’s Spoor), respect for the agency of plants (Agnieszka Holland’s Charlatan), belief in spirits beyond the Christian context (Małgorzata Szumowska’s Never Gonna Snow Again and Body), awareness of the natural environment (Katarzyna Klimkiewicz and Dominga Sotomayor Castillos’s La Isla) or reference to tribal cultures (Zbigniew Libera’s Walser). At the same time, these works re-evaluate said tradition, treating it as a “rescue perspective” in the face of the current civilizational crisis.
PL
Artykuł jest poświęcony  analizie związków między ludźmi i nie-ludźmi oraz wyjaśnieniu procesu „stawania-się-zwierzęciem” (devenir-animal) na przykładzie filmu Choroba tropikalna (Sat pralat, 2004) Apichatponga Weerasethakula. Źródłem inspiracji jest multinaturalistyczny perspektywizm wprowadzony przez Philippe’a Descolę i Eduarda Viveirosa de Castro do etnograficznych badań nad wierzeniami animistycznymi oraz filozofia Gilles’a Deleuze’a i Félixa Guattariego. Odchodząc od antropocentrycznej perspektywy, autor zwraca uwagę na kilka głównych problemów: konieczność podważenia opozycji między naturą i kulturą, zakwestionowania psychicznej nieciągłości między różnymi rodzajami bytów, wskazania na możliwość wyzwolenia człowieka z podmiotowości przez wyrwanie go z ustabilizowanych kategorii (biologicznych, społecznych, kulturowych) oraz otwarcie na relacje z Innymi (zwierzętami, duchami, roślinami).
EN
The paper analyzes the relations between humans and non-humans and explains the process of „becoming-animal” (devenir-animal) on the basis of the film entitled Tropical Malady (Sat pralat, 2004) by Apichatpong Weerasethakul. The source of inspiration is multinatural perspectivism introduced by Philippe Descola and Eduard Viveiros de Castro to ethnographic research on animistic beliefs, and by the philosophy of Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari. Moving away from an anthropocentric perspective, the author draws attention to several major problems: the need to challenge the opposition between nature and culture, questioning the mental discontinuity between different types of entities, pointing to the possibility of liberating humans from subjectivity by freeing them from established categories (biological, social, cultural ones) and opening them for relations with Others (animals, ghosts, plants).
EN
The main thesis of this article is that the Basque linguacultural complex provides a window onto conceptual frames reflecting a much earlier animistic worldview, reminiscent of the type of relational cosmologies characterizing ethnographically documented hunter-gatherers. In this respect, even though the Basque language is classed as pre-Indo-European, what that classification might mean from the point of view of the cosmological frames of thought entrenched in the Basque language is taken into consideration, especially the fact that, until the late 20th century, the orally transmitted belief that humans descended from bears was still circulating among Basque speakers. Ethnographic and linguistic evidence points to the possibility that a similar animistic linguacultural substrate was operating across much of Europe during the period in which Indo-European languages and their associated conceptual frames were gaining a foothold. Drawing on the methodological and theoretical tools of cultural linguistics and Habermas’ concept of lifeworld (Lebenswelt), defined as a culturally transmitted and linguistically organized stock of interpretative patterns, a set of asymmetric polarities are analyzed. These are deeply engrained in the linguaculture of Western thought, namely, man/woman, human/animal and culture/nature. Moreover, all of them rest, ultimately, on the notion of human exceptionalism. When viewed from the indigenous frames of the Basque language, these oppositions disappear or are represented in ways more in accordance with the underlying animistic ontology and associated conceptualizations of relational personal identity.In short, the conceptual frames discussed in this study, understandings that are projected through the linguacultural nexus of the Basque language, often align with the ways that animism has been interpreted as expressing a form of relational ontology in which notions of kinship, mutual aid and reciprocity are emphasized and hence closely intertwined. Consequently, the resulting worldview provides a different vantage point for looking back at Western thought and what might have been going on in Europe in times past.
PL
W artykule stawia się tezę, iż lingwokultura baskijska daje wgląd w ramy pojęciowe odzwierciedlające dawny, animistyczny obraz świata, przywołujący kosmologie relacyjne, które – jak wiemy z danych etnograficznych – charakteryzowały społeczności zbieracko-łowieckie. W tym sensie, jeśli język baskijski określa się jako pre-indoeuropejski, powstaje pytanie, co to oznacza z punktu widzenia utrwalonej w nim kosmologii, zwłaszcza w kontekście wierzeń, obecnych wśród Basków jeszcze pod koniec XX w., jakoby ludzie pochodzili od niedźwiedzi. Dane etnograficzne i językowe wskazują na możliwość istnienia podobnego animistycznego językowokulturowego substratu na znacznym obszarze Europy w okresie, kiedy utrwalały się tam języki indoeuropjeskie i obecne w nich ramy pojęciowe. Wykorzystując metodologiczne i teoretyczne narzędzia lingwistyki kulturowej oraz pojęcie świata społecznego (świata życia, niem. Lebenswelt, ang. lifeworld) w ujęciu Jürgena Habermasa, definiowane jako przekazywany kulturowo i organizowany językowo zasób wzorców interpretacyjnych, poddano analizie trzy biegunowo ustrukturowane asymetrie, mocno zakorzenione w myśli zachodniej: mężczyzna/kobieta, człowiek/zwierzę i kultura/natura. Wszystkie opierają się na koncepcji wyjątkowości człowieka w relacji do innych bytów. Jednak kiedy rozważa się je w perspektywie ram pojęciowych zakodowanych w języku baskijskim, opozycje te znikają lub nabierają innego kształtu, zgodnie z ontologią animistyczną i związanym z nią pojęciem relacyjnej tożsamości indywidualnej. Innymi słowy, omawiane w artykule ramy pojęciowe wyrastające z lingwokultury baskijskiej często pokrywają się z takim rozumieniem animizmu, wedle którego wyraża on pewnego rodzaju ontologię relacyjną, podkreślającą i ściśle łączącą ze sobą pojęcia pokrewieństwa, wzajemnej pomocy i ogólnie wzajemności. Wyłaniający się z tych kontekstów obraz świata umożliwia niestandardowe spojrzenie na myśl zachodnią i rozwój pojęć w dawnej historii Europy.
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