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EN
The issue of stability in economy is essential, both in theoretical as well as in practical discussion. It is especially important in an environment of economic transformation. The aim of the article is to assess the economic stability during the transformation of the south-east region of Europe over a period of 19 years (1995-2014), and the mutual relation between the economic stability and the transformation process, including the transformation of banking sectors. The countries selected to the research were Albania, Bosnia and Hercegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Romania and Serbia. The study shows the strong correlation between transformation process of economy and banking sectors and not more than moderate relationship between transformation and stability, in some of the studied countries. The methods used include a literature review of the theory on the transformation process with special focus on the Balkan region, as well as a comparative analysis of data, which addresses the progress of the economic and banking sector’s transformation and measures the macroeconomic stability in this region and Pearson correlation for assessing mutual impacts of the variables.
EN
The paper analyses transformation process in Poland between 1989 and 2004. The goal of the paper is to clarify the most important steps in the economic policy that were carried out in this period. The structure of the paper follows this general goal. We first of all analyse economic development of the country before the fall of the communist regime because this determined the whole following process. Then we shortly mention political development that had a significant impact on the transformation process, and its results. In the next part we concentrate on the main steps in the economic transformation, and consequently devote place to specific aspects - for example privatisation. The final part analyses the main economic indicators of this period. We conclude that the transformation process achieved its main economic goal and the economy's ability to grow increased.
EN
The concentration of production and capital are interrelated and are a prerequisite for consolidating the economic actors. The main problem of a market system is in the process of formation of the competitive transformation of the national economy which is only achieved with the effective use of forms of capital concentration and production. One of the levers on the consolidation of production and competitiveness are the mergers and acquisitions (M&A). Based on a review of the literature on Russian market of mergers and acquisitions this article shows the dynamics of the M&A market processes in Russia. While the domestic M&A market is still very different from both the American and the European market, our analysis reveals some positive trends.
EN
The objective of the paper is to present the development and distribution of microfirms in mid-size Polish towns during the years of transformation of the political system. Research comprised towns with a population numbering from 20 thousand to 100 thousand inhabitants. According to the Central Office of Statistics reporting standards it is recognized that micro enterprises are economic entities employing up to nine people. Research has shown that a dynamie growth of microfirms took place during the transformation period in mid-size Polish towns. Majority of them came into being in towns with high tourism values located near border Crossing points, along the main communication routes, on the edge of great urbanindustrial agglomerations and towns located within special economic zones. On the other hand, the least number of microfirms were recorded in towns with less than 50 thousand inhabitants, usually peripherally located in a given voivodship.
EN
The paper analyses transformation process in Hungary between 1989 and 2004. The goal of this paper is to analyze and evaluate the transformation process in Hungary. The structure of the paper follows this general goal. First of all, an analysis of economic development of the country before the fall of the communist regime is carried out because this determined the whole process which followed. Then we shortly mention political development that had a significant impact on the transformation process and its results. In the next part we concentrate on the main steps in the economic transformation, and consequently we devote space to specific aspects - privatization, for example. The main economic indicators of this period are analyzed in the final part. We conclude that the transformation process achieved its main economic goal and the economy’s ability to grow increased. At the same time, however, the transformation process created environment for the subsequent economic problems.
EN
The Slovenian economy appeared on the brink of bankruptcy at the end of 2013. The situation was caused by high level of classified debts in state-owned banks. This can be seen as surprising because Slovenia used to be (for a long time) considered as a (textbook) example of the gradualist transformation approach. The goal of this article is first to describe the transformation process in the country and consequently to determine causes of the economic problems that resulted in the 2013 crisis. The article concludes that the economic problems were rooted already in the specific functioning of the centrally planned system in Yugoslavia. These specifics had a direct influence on the transformation process in the country and stood behind the application of gradualism. Among the most telling features of gradualism were slow privatization, cold attitude towards foreign investment and the foremost lasting casual economic environment caused by behaviour of the state-owned banks. My conclusion is that the country’s economic problems can be ascribed to gradualism and that they are a clear example of the path dependence development.
EN
The unemployment problem is one of the most important consequences of the economic transformation. After 1989 radical changes occurred in the Polish labor market. It was transformed from onewith deficiency of labor into one with deficiency of job offers supply. This transformation resulted in: a decrease in the number of the employed, changes in the structure of employment, a decreasing level of the population's job activity, work in the “grey zone” becoming widespread, and unemployment. The main cause of unemployment in Poland in the 90s was the deep economic crisis. In 2003 the highest unemployment rates were still noted in the warmińsko-mazurskie province (27,5%), the zachodniopomorskie province (26%) and in the lubuskie province (25,5%). The lowest ones were found in the małopolskie and mazowieckie provinces (13,4% each) and in the podlaskie province (14%). Taking under consideration the basic administrative units, i.e. districts, we can say that Warsaw has the least unemployment (3,1%), Poznań (3,7%), Gdańsk, Wrocław and Kraków (from 3,8% to 5,2%). On the other hand the situation on the labor market of some country districts in the warmińsko-mazurskie and zachodniopomorskie provinces is so hard that the unemployment rate there exceeds 40 % of the population at the economically productive age. People who only completed professional training (35,5%) and secondary or primary school (32,2%) constituted the greatest proportion of the unemployed. 4,3% people had graduated from universities. People between 25 and 34 years of age constituted the greatest proportion of the unemployed.
EN
The end of the era of communism in Poland initiated a period of enormous systematic changes, which led to the establishment of democracy and introduction of market economy. The transformation of the economic system meant a thorough reform of the Polish economy through substitution of central planning by free market mechanisms. This caused changes not only in the sphere of production but also within the distribution of wealth and in the social sphere. The present article is intended to examine the influence of the economic transformation in Poland on the social sphere after 1989. As a research method it uses a theoretical analysis of selected publications and Internet resource materials. In the first part of the article the author presents the origin of the Polish systematic changes started in the late 1980s. Next the main areas of economic changes are characterized. In the final part of the article the author analyses social changes resulting from the introduced economic reforms.
EN
Over several centuries the characteristic features of the economies of tropical islands were similar and unchanged. On almost all islands, independently of their genetic type, farming and fishing predominated, sprinkled with inter-island trade. With the European expansion, economies of the islands underwent transformations. The development of transportation and communication contributed to the increased accessibility of islands and to their inclusion into world economy. This phenomenon progressed particularly fast in the second half of the 20th century, when already independent island states often searched for capital necessary for their sovereign existence. Numerous unconventional solutions were proposed, but it was tourism that achieved the greatest triumphs, gradually beginning to dominate in the economy of islands of almost all types.
EN
The article presents, in a multifaceted manner, the changes that occurred in urban electric transport in Ukraine after 1991. The purpose of the article is to research the diversification of the degree and directions of development and transformation of urban electric transport systems in the context of the transport policy. The legal and financial conditions for the functioning and development of the system are discussed, and a SWOT analysis of the current situation is carried out. In order to assess the direction of the changes occurring on individual networks, a synthetic index was used, constructed on the basis of the statistical data from 25 years available. The research has shown that in 1991‒2016, in the vast majority of Ukrainian cities there was a regression in urban electric transport, the largest in the east of Ukraine. That was of a bipartite nature: in the first years it practically applied to all networks, later a polarization in cities occurred ‒ in parts of cities the situation of urban electric transport has improved slightly. In the context of numerous diagnosed problems, the challenges faced by urban electric transport in Ukraine were indicated.
PL
Celem artykułu jest prezentacja i analiza polityki właścicielskiej państwa w okresie transfor-macji gospodarczej w Polsce. Wyróżnione i charakteryzowane zostały cztery etapy tej polityki: etap pionierski (1990–1992), etap kapitalizmu politycznego (1993–1997), etap kapitalizmu poli-tycznego á rebours (1998–2006) etap kapitalizmu państwowego (2007–2014). W pierwszych latach transformacji polityka właścicielska, mimo że prowadzona bez klarow-nych podstaw prawnych, miała charakter racjonalny, a organy państwa zachowywały się wobec państwowych spółek w sposób – najogólniej mówiąc – odpowiedzialny. Etap kapitalizmu politycznego, którego elementy są obecne po dziś dzień w działaniach pań-stwa, charakteryzował się brakiem jasnych, skodyfikowanych reguł nadzoru, sprzyjał powstawa-niu zjawisk patologicznych, polegających na powszechnym traktowaniu spółek sektora publiczne-go jako swoistego „łupu politycznego” kolejnych ekip rządowych. W końcu dekady lat 90. pojawiło się zjawisko kapitalizmu politycznego á rebours. Polega ono na czerpaniu (czy nawet wymuszaniu) różnorodnych korzyści ze strony państwa przez największe i najważniejsze przedsiębiorstwa państwowe, często działające na zmonopolizowanych rynkach, kosztem innych części gospodarki, w tym konsumentów. W drugiej połowie pierwszej dekady XXI w. w Polsce mamy do czynienia z etapem polityki właścicielskiej państwa, który można określić jako kapitalizm państwowy. Rządy koalicji zdomi-nowanej przez PiS, jak i rządy koalicji PO-PSL prowadziły politykę „aktywnego właściciela pań-stwowego”, której istotą były próby wykorzystywania domeny państwowej do realizacji określo-nych interesów państwa. W ciągu ćwierćwiecza przemian transformacyjnych w Polsce nie powstały kompleksowe, jednolite regulacje prawne dotyczące nadzoru państwa nad przedsiębiorstwami państwowymi, a polityka właścicielska znajdowała się zwykle w cieniu polityki prywatyzacyjnej, przy czym obie były prowadzone przez te same organy państwa.
EN
The aim of the paper is to present and analyze the state ownership policy in Poland in the pe-riod of economic transformation. The following four stages of this policy were characterized: the pioneering stage (1990–1992), the stage of political capitalism (1993–1997), the stage of political capitalism á rebours (1998–2006), the stage of state capitalism (2007–2014). The ownership policy during the first years of transition, although carried out without a clear legal basis, was rather rational. The behavior of state authorities towards state-owned enterprises was rather responsible. The stage of political capitalism – whose elements are present until today in the activities of the state – was characterized by a lack of clear and codified rules of supervision, it favored the formation of pathological phenomena of treating state-owned enterprises as a sort of “political loot” for subsequent Polish governments. At the end of the 90s, the phenomenon of political capitalism á rebours appeared. It involves reaping (or even forcing) a variety of benefits from the state by the largest and most important state-owned enterprises (often operating in monopoly markets) at the expense of other parts of the economy, including consumers. Since the second half of the first decade of the twenty-first century in Poland we are dealing with the stage of state ownership policy, which can be described as state capitalism. Coalition governments conducted policy of "active owner of the state". The essence of this policy is to use state-owned enterprises to achieve the specific goals of the state. During 25 years of transformation, Poland has not developed a comprehensive and uniform regula-tions on state supervision over state-owned enterprises and the ownership policy was usually hidden in the shadow of privatization policy, both of which were conducted by the same authorities.
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25 lat wolnego rynku nieruchomości. Analiza SWOT

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PL
Celem prezentowanego artykułu jest syntetyczna prezentacja wyników oceny obecnego stanu polskiego rynku nieruchomości, osiągniętego po dwudziestu pięciu latach jego funkcjonowania w warunkach gospodarki rynkowej. Ocenę oparto na metodzie analizy SWOT, w której uzupełniająco, dla kwantyfikacji poszczególnych czynników charakteryzujących rynek wykorzystana została metoda genewska. Oszacowano, że w 2014 roku suma cech pozytywnych osiągnęła łącznie 175 punktów w stosunku do 200 możliwych (polski rynek nieruchomości nie wykorzystuje około 12,5% wartości związanych głównie ze stymulowaniem popytu). Cechy negatywne osiągnęły łącznie 105 punktów w stosunku do 200 możliwych (przed polskim rynkiem nieruchomości pozostaje do neutralizacji połowa niedoskonałości, wynikających głównie ze słabej kondycji ekonomicznej gospodarstw domowych, złej gospodarki przestrzenią w miastach.
EN
The aim of this article is a synthetic presentation of the results of the assessment of the current state of the Polish real estate market, achieved after twenty-five years of its functioning in the conditions of market economy. The assessment was based on the SWOT analysis method in which supplementally, for the quantification of individual factors characterising the market, the method of Geneva (indicator method) was used. It was estimated that in 2014 the sum of: • positive characteristics reached a total of 175 points compared to 200 possible (the Polish real estate market does not use approximately 12.5% of the value associated mainly with stimulating demand and the activation of our market for foreign investors); • negative characteristics reached a total of 105 points out of 200 possible (the Polish real estate market is facing the neutralisation of a half of imperfections, resulting mainly from the poor economic condition of households, poor land management in urban areas).
PL
W artykule omówiono główne patologie polskiej transformacji gospodarczej na podstawie książki profesora Witolda Kieżuna pt. „Patologia transformacji”. Jak podaje autor książki, proces przechodzenia polskiej gospodarki od socjalistycznej do kapitalistycznej był pełen błędów, których konsekwencje odczuwamy do dziś. Celem artykułu jest wskazanie i omówienie tych dysfunkcji oraz zachęcenie czytelników do lektury książki prof. W. Kieżuna.
EN
The article discusses the main pathologies of Polish economic transformation basing on the book "Pathology of transformation" by professor Witold Kiezun. According to the author of the book, the process of transformation of the Polish economy from a socialist to capitalist was full of errors, which consequences we experience till now. The purpose of this article is to identify and discuss these dysfunctions and to encourage readers to read the book written by professor W. Kiezun.
EN
The article examines the current state of research in the field of the history of economic sciences and activities of Czechoslovak economists in the era of socialism. It provides an overview of basic contributions, both domestic and foreign, on this topic since the 1990s, examining works of Johanna Bockman, Jiří Suk and Gil Eyal in a greater detail. It also mentions the latest research projects concerning this topic. In the end, the author offers a list of available sources (archival documents and published memoirs) which can be used in future research.
CS
Článek se zabývá dosavadním stavem bádání v oblasti dějin ekonomické vědy a činnosti československých ekonomů v období socialismu. Podává přehled o základních příspěvcích k tomuto tématu od počátku devadesátých let jak domácího, tak zahraničního původu. Detailněji se pak věnuje pracím Johanny Bockmanové, Jiřího Suka a Gila Eyala, zmiňuje taktéž nejnovější výzkumné projekty, které se tímto tématem zabývají. Závěrem autor nabízí přehled dostupných pramenů (archivních dokumentů i publikovaných pamětí), kterých lze využít k dalšímu výzkumu.
PL
Obalenie centralnie sterowanych systemów ekonomicznych w krajach Europy Wschodniej i Środkowej stanowi bezprecedensową sytuację, w której firmy, rynki oraz systemy społeczne i instytucjonalne znajdują się w trakcie całkowitej rekonstrukcji. Zmiana środowiska zmusza polskie firmy postsocjalistyczne do szukania strategii i zasad organizacyjnych dostosowanych to radykalnie innego kontekstu społecznoekonomicznego. Na podstawie badania opartego na długookresowym studium przypadku trzech firm przemysłowych, które przetrwały pierwsza dekadę procesu transformacji gospodarczej, w pracy tej analizujemy, jak polskie firmy postsocjalistyczne przystosowują się do nowych turbulentnych warunków gospodarki rynkowej, skupiając się w szczególności na tym, jak budują one nowe kompetencje. Zadajemy sobie również dwa dodatkowe pytania: jaka jest rola historii i ścieżki zależności i jak budowanie kompetencji współewoluuje wraz ze zmieniającym się otoczeniem. Analiza wynikowa badania, przeprowadzona zgodnie z metodologią zaproponowaną przez Hubermana i Milesa (1991), obejmuje role aktorów w budowie kompetencji, procesy budowy kompetencji oraz siły napędowe budowania kompetencji. Niniejsze studium przypadku pokazuje, że zdolność regulacji stanowi podstawowy składnik dynamicznych zdolności i czynnik pośredniczący w tworzeniu nowych kompetencji. Dlatego w kontekście poprzełomowej dekonstrukcji strategiczna odnowa wymaga pojawienia się nowych procesów regulacji opartych na głęboko zmodyfikowanych systemach znaczenia, dominacji i legitymizacji (Giddens 1987). Sugerujemy, że wnioski te można rozszerzyć na inne poprzełomowe sytuacje, odznaczające się gwałtowną zmianą środowiska.
EN
The abolition of centralized economy systems in Eastern and Central European countries is an unprecedented situation in which firms, markets, social and institutional systems undergo a process of complete reconstruction. Changes in their economic environment make Polish post-socialist firms to invent strategies and organizational designs adapted to the post-rupture context of economic transition. On the basis of a long-term case study of three ex-socialist Polish firms which have survived the first decade of the economic transition, we analyze how these firms adapt to the new social-economic environment and more precisely how they build new competencies. Two additional questions are also addressed: first, the role of history and path dependence in the process of building new competencies and second, the co-evolution of competence-building with the environment. The analysis of data based on the methodology proposed by Huberman and Miles (1991) focuses on: the role of actors, the processes of competence-building and competence-building driving forces. The main conclusion drawn is that the regulation capacity is a key component of dynamic capabilities and a mediating variable of building new competencies. Therefore, in the post--rupture deconstruction context strategic renewal necessitates the emergence of a new regulation process based on deeply modified signification, domination and legitimization structures (Giddens, 1987). We suggest that this result could be extended to other post-rupture contexts marked by rapid environmental change.
PL
Celem artykułu jest przedstawienie krótkiej historii Łodzi na tle wydarzeń historycznych prowadzącej do dezindustrializacji miasta w okresie transformacji gospodarczej Polski. Jako trauma „wielkiej zmiany” w latach 1990–2004 dokumentowana jest juwenilizacja biedy w Łodzi, niebrana pod uwagę i niedostrzegana przez architektów i realizatorów przejścia od gospodarki centralnie sterowanej do gospodarki rynkowej.
EN
The aim of this article is to present a brief history of Lodz in view of historical events leading to the deindustrialization of the city during the period of Poland’s economic transformation. As a “great change” trauma of 1990 to 2004, juvenilization of poverty in Lodz has been documented. This phenomenon seems to be disregarded and unnoticed by architects and implementers of the transition from a centrally planned economy to a market economy.
EN
Internally polarized counter-elites, that are often involved in corporate in-terests, do not have enough power to oppose the negative manifestations of economic transformation. In the countries of the South Caucasus, there are two types of business elites, the internal and the external ones, which „grew up” from the economic trans-formation. The external elites result from the privatization process, in which primarily Russians and Kazakhs are engaged. Concerning their interests in the region, they are lobbying the decision-making processes, while the local elites create the aforementioned mentioned „representative system”. The wealth fac-tor is therefore the way to exercise power. The research on business elites remains a discursive issue, which seems to be an endless subject to develop. Its analysis opens a broad discussion on the methodology of the study of elites, both in terms of their mechanisms and characteristics, as well as the theory itself.
EN
The process of transition of the socialist countries, initiated over three decades ago, was unprecedented and complex. The description and analysis of the ways behind the transition from a centrally planned economy to a market economy or hybrid models may not only be the basis for scientific reflection, but also the formulation of recommendations for other developing countries in the reform process. One of the more interesting examples is Vietnam, which has experienced one of the highest rates of economic growth and poverty reduction in the world, combined with achieving an overall macroeconomic stability. In the light of these events, it is reasonable to inquire about the transformation process in Vietnam and how it affected its economy. To answer these questions, a historical analysis is used, based on domestic and foreign literature and the analysis of existing data. The analysis shows that a key feature of the reform process in Vietnam was that the efforts were concentrated where production could react quickly, i.e. where the elasticity of supply was high, so as to ensure that growth was sustained and accelerated during the transition, favoring high rates of investment and savings. The relatively harmonious combination of spontaneous reforms at the grassroots level and decisive actions by the top political leadership could be seen as one of the unique features of the Vietnamese reforms and the reason why the Vietnamese reforms fundamentally changed the foundations of the old socio-economic model without causing a deep recession.
PL
Zainicjowany ponad trzy dekady temu proces transformacji krajów socjalistycznych miał charakter bezprecedensowy i złożony. Opis i analiza dróg przejścia od „czystej” gospodarki nakazowo-rozdzielczej do gospodarki rynkowej lub modeli hybrydowych może być nie tylko podstawą refleksji naukowej, ale również stanowić podstawę formułowania zaleceń dla innych reformujących się krajów rozwijających się. Jednym z ciekawszych przykładów jest Wietnam, który doświadczył jednego z najwyższych wskaźników wzrostu gospodarczego i redukcji ubóstwa na świecie, połączonych z osiągnięciem ogólnej stabilizacji makroekonomicznej. W świetle tych wydarzeń zasadne są pytania o to, jak przebiegał proces transformacji w Wietnamie i jak wpłynął on na jego gospodarkę. By odpowiedzieć na te pytania, w pracy wykorzystywana jest przede wszystkim analiza historyczna bazująca na literaturze krajowej i zagranicznej oraz analiza danych zastanych. W wyniku przeprowadzonych analiz można stwierdzić, że kluczową cechą procesu reform w Wietnamie było to, że wysiłki skupiały się tam, gdzie produkcja mogła szybko reagować, tj. tam, gdzie elastyczność podaży była wysoka, tak aby zapewnić utrzymanie, a najlepiej przyspieszenie wzrostu w okresie przejściowym, sprzyjając wysokim stopom inwestycji i oszczędności. Względnie harmonijne połączenie spontanicznych reform na szczeblu oddolnym i zdecydowanych działań najwyższego kierownictwa politycznego mogłoby zostać zauważone jako jedna z wyjątkowych cech wietnamskich reform i powód wyjaśniający, dlaczego wietnamskie reformy fundamentalnie zmieniły podstawy starego modelu społeczno-ekonomicznego, nie powodując głębokiej recesji.
EN
The article presents fiscal reforms in Poland since 1990. The author describes the reforms of direct and indirect taxes, analyzes their inconsistencies and advocates changes that are aligned with socio-economic cohesion policy. In order to eliminate pathologies in the tax system, it recommends the elimination of social advantages in the tax system, consideration of pro-family preferences, the linkage of progression and tax relief to stimulate professional activity and propensity to invest, simplifying tax collection procedures, streamlining the tax system and sealing taxes.
PL
W artykule zaprezentowano przebieg reform fiskalnych w Polsce od 1990 roku. Autor opisuje reformy dotyczące podatków bezpośrednich i pośrednich, wskazuje na ich niespójności i postuluje zmiany dostosowane do polityki spójności społeczno-ekonomicznej. W celu likwidacji patologii w systemie podatkowym zaleca eliminację znamion przywilejów socjalnych w systemie podatkowym, respektowanie wymogów polityki prorodzinnej, powiązanie progresji i ulg podatkowych dla pobudzenia aktywności zawodowej i skłonności do inwestowania, uproszczenie procedur poboru podatków, usprawnienia aparatu skarbowego i uszczelnienie poboru podatków.
PL
W niniejszym artykule przedstawiono ujęcie instytucji w świetle rozważań ordoliberalnych ekonomistów – Euckena W. i Erharda L. – o konkurencyjnym porządku gospodarczym. Konsekwencji i spójności posunięć z zakresu polityki gospodarczej przeciwstawiane są błędy wynikające z dyskrecjonalnego uprawiania polityki gospodarczej, które skutkują utratą całościowego spojrzenia na gospodarkę. Transformacja ujmowana w świetle potrzeby szybszego tempa zmian nie może być oderwana od silnego wpływu państwa na kształtowanie ładu gospodarczego, stąd skazana jest ona na konstruktywizm jako na podejście najbardziej możliwe choć wysoce niedoskonałe.
EN
The paper presents an approach to institutions elaborated by ordoliberal economists Eucken W. and Erhard L. based on the notion of competitive economic order. The consequence and coherence was there opposed to discrepancy of economic policy inducing fallacies and loss of wholeness when glancing at the economy. Therefore, the economic transformation ought not to be detached form the influence of the state in terms of constructing socio-economic order, and is thus inevitably built on constructionism as an approach highly imperfect though the most possible.
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