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EN
This study focuses on the approaches used by Czech social workers operating in the field of child protection to resolve parental conflicts and looks specifically at their inclination to employ defensive practice. Defensive practice involves prioritising regulations and prescribed rules over the interests of clients, i.e. parents and children. The aim of this study is to verify, with the help of a questionnaire, the theoretical connections between the use of defensive practice and several factors that represent working conditions and external pressures. The research indicates that the factors connected with the use of defensive practice to deal with parental conflicts have the opposite effect in the Czech Republic that that observed in international studies or have no influence whatsoever. Child protection social workers who emphasise compliance regard their working conditions as favourable and have somewhat conservative attitudes and beliefs. The authors’ interpretation of the findings is that the emphasis on regulations in Czech child protection is not a defensive reaction to threatening working conditions, but an expression of loyalty to an organisation that offers them a pleasant work environment where they need not be afraid of any potential failures or consequences of their decisions. They also propose redefining Czech defensive practice by placing less emphasis on compliance as a reaction to unfavourable working conditions.
EN
Administration of issues pertaining to orphans constituted a significant part of agendas of Bohemian and Moravian towns during the early modern age, as is evidenced by a number of preserved archival sources. The study focuses especially on entries pertaining to orphan’s accounting and it aims to present these materials in a new perspective, namely through the lens of accounting rules and principles that were characteristic of accounting records of that period. In addition to authentic documents produced by authorities (town councils) or guardians of orphans, the text also draws from various sources of normative nature such as codified town laws, expert treatises published in print and last but not least also from economic instructions. It is true that orphans’ accounts basically did not differ from accounting entries pertaining to other subjects of that time. However, the Czech Lands were known for its highly-developed system of guardianship at that time, which means that these documents carried certain specifics thanks to which they can be seen as de facto unique when it comes to research on the history of accounting systems. A typological classification of individual entries as well as a clarification of accounting mechanism on particular examples can help to shed light on limits of these entries for current researchers.
PL
Tekst stanowi częściowo krytyczną polemikę dotyczącą uchwały SN z dnia 17 maja 2018 r., III CZP 11/18, w której Sąd Najwyższy stwierdza, że rodzicom dorosłego dziecka, które jest ubezwłasnowolnione całkowicie z powodu niepełnosprawności umysłowej i dla którego ustanowiono opiekuna, nie przysługuje uprawnienie do żądania rozstrzygnięcia przez sąd opiekuńczy o sposobie utrzymywania kontaktów z tym dzieckiem. Teza ta zasługuje na aprobatę, lecz jej uzasadnienie jest niewyczerpujące i oparte na błędnych ustaleniach. Podstawą wspomnianego uprawnienia nie jest ani przepis art. 87 k.r.o. ani przepisy art. 113–1136 k.r.o. Wzajemne obowiązki wsparcia i kontaktu rodziców oraz dzieci, oparte na więzi rodzinnej, mają charakter osobisty i nie są opatrzone sankcją bezpośredniego przymusu państwowego. Sąd Najwyższy pomija jednak znaczenie instrumentów nadzoru sądu opiekuńczego nad sprawowaniem opieki przez opiekuna, w tym w szczególności zarządzenia nadzorcze (art. 168 k.r.o.), które są wiążące dla opiekuna. Wskutek stosowania instrumentów nadzoru nie dojdzie co prawda do sądowego ustalenia kontaktów rodziców z dorosłym dzieckiem, ale niejako pośrednio instrumenty te mogą uskutecznić kontakt ubezwłasnowolnionego całkowicie z rodzicami, gdy nie stoi temu na przeszkodzie jego dobro.
EN
The paper is a partially critical polemic with the Supreme Court’s resolution of May 17, 2018, III CZP 11/18, in which the Supreme Court states that the parents of an adult child who is totally incapacitated due to mental disability and for whom a guardian has been appointed are not entitled to demand that the guardianship court decides on how to maintain contact with that child. This thesis deserves an approval but its justification is not exhaustive and based on erroneous findings. The basis of this right is neither the provision of article 87 nor the provisions of article 113 - article 1136 of the Family and Guardianship Code. Mutual obligations of support and contact between parents and children, based on family ties, are personal and do not bear the sanction of direct state coercion. However, the Supreme Court ignores the importance of instruments for the supervision of the guardianship court over the caregiver's care, including in particular supervisory orders (article 168 of the Family and Guardianship Code), which are binding on the legal guardian. As a result of the use of supervision instruments, there will be no judicial determination of parents' contacts with the adult child, but indirectly these instruments can make the contacts with the parents of the incapacitated possible, if their good does not prevent it.
EN
The main causes of leave behind their home for unaccompanied minors are fear of persecution, human rights violations, armed conflicts and civil unrest, sexual exploitation, domestic violence, abuse, severe deprivation, gender-based discrimination, forced military service, search for new opportunities, the intention of joining the family already staying in Europe. The main aim of the study is to give a short present of the asylum procedure the minors are passing through. Summarizes the barriers to access to asylum procedures, the role of the guardian, the legal, medical and social assistance system for asylum seeker minors and the possible outcomes of the procedure and opportunities of appeal.
PL
Głównymi przyczynami pozostawienia domu za życia dla małoletnich bez opieki są obawa przed prześladowaniem, łamaniem praw człowieka, konfliktami zbrojnymi i niepokojami społecznymi, wykorzystywaniem seksualnym, przemocą w rodzinie, znęcaniem się, poważną deprywacją, dyskryminacją ze względu na płeć, przymusową służbą wojskową, poszukiwaniem nowych możliwości, zamiar dołączenia do rodziny już przebywającej w Europie. Głównym celem badania jest krótkie przedstawienie procedury azylowej, którą przechodzą małoletni. Przedstawia bariery w dostępie do procedur azylowych, rolę opiekuna, system pomocy prawnej, medycznej i społecznej dla osób nieletnich ubiegających się o azyl oraz możliwe wyniki procedury i możliwości odwołania.
EN
On the grounds of post-war legislation, guardianship affected people who were not capable of independent management of their own affairs, and care for their own well-being. This first of all concerned persons with psychological conditions, mental deficiency, and ones whose psychological disorders were related to alcohol abuse, and wasteful mismanagement. The practice of guardianship was aimed at helping the people unable to manage their conduct and/or their affairs independently. Protection of personal and property interest of these people sometimes required that their capacity to legal transactions had to be limited, or else that they were entirely bereft of it. Guardianship was applied when, due to the state of their health, a person was not capable of making conscious decisions. The legislator envisaged two types of guardianship: partial, which meant that a person subjected to it concluded legal actions on his of their own, while to have them valid, a consent of the guardian was necessary. On the other hand, such a person could make decisions concerning minor life affairs on his or her own. In turn, the plenary guardianship bereft one of the possibility of performing legal transactions, and had them represented in all legal matters by the legal guardian appointed by the court.
PL
Na gruncie powojennych przepisów ubezwłasnowolnienie dotyczyło osób, które nie potrafiły samodzielnie zatroszczyć się o swoje sprawy i dbać o własne dobro. Przede wszystkim dotyczyło osób z chorobą psychiczną, niedorozwojem umysłowym oraz tych, u których zaburzenia psychiczne związane były z nadużywaniem alkoholu lub marnotrawstwem. Instytucja ubezwłasnowolnienia miała na celu pomoc osobom, które nie były w stanie samodzielnie kierować swoim postępowaniem bądź samodzielnie prowadzić swoich spraw. Ochrona interesów osobistych i majątkowych tych właśnie osób wymagała niekiedy, by ich zdolność do czynności prawnych została ograniczona bądź też, by zostali oni jej całkowicie pozbawieni. Ubezwłasnowolnienie stosowało się wówczas, gdy osoba ze względu na stan zdrowia nie była w stanie podejmować decyzji w sposób świadomy. Ustawodawca przewidział dwa rodzaje ubezwłasnowolnienia: czę ś ciowe, które polegało na tym, że osoba ubezwłasnowolniona sama dokonywała czynności prawnych, natomiast do ich ważności potrzebowała zgody opiekuna. Natomiast decyzje dotyczące drobnych spraw życia codziennego mogła ona podejmować samodzielnie. Natomiast całkowite ubezwłasnowolnienie osoby pozbawiało ją możliwości dokonywania czynności prawnych, a we wszystkich sprawach reprezentował ją prawny opiekun, wyznaczony przez sąd.
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EN
The school plays very important roles. First of all, the school should provide with essential conditions to the development of each child. What is more, the school has to prepare the young person for performing family and civil duties.The whole process should be based on the most important principles, such as: solidarity, democracy, tolerance, justice and freedom. This article emphasizes the civil liability in teacher’s job and what is related to this process. The writer points out the meaning of civil liability and its relation with civil law. According to this article civil liability is essential part of law and it is necessary to learn law to become self-confident.
PL
Szkoła winna zapewnić każdemu uczniowi warunki niezbędne do jego rozwoju, przygotować go do pełnienia obowiązków rodzinnych i obywatelskich w oparciu o zasady solidarności, demokracji, tolerancji, sprawiedliwości i wolności. Stąd ogrom odpowiedzialności prawnej w zawodzie nauczycielskim i to nie tylko z zakresu odpowiedzialności cywilnej, co jest wynikiem rozważań w prezentowanym artykule, ale też odpowiedzialności karnej. Można tu znaleźć odpowiedź – czym jest odpowiedzialność cywilna i w czym się przejawia z punktu widzenia prawa cywilnego. Odpowiedzialność cywilna jak stwierdzono w artykule jest istotnym składnikiem prawa, da się ująć w pewne formuły, co pozwala nam przewidywać, kiedy czynimy zadość naszym obowiązkom, a kiedy wychodzimy na grunt niepewny, stąd warto przypomnieć nauczycielom, że pewność może przynieść tylko poznanie prawa.
EN
In recent years, in particular after 2015, tenths of thousands of unaccompanied children have arrived in Europe, mostly in Greece and Italy, escaping from war, conflicts and other hardships they were faced with in their countries of origin. A considerable number of them are very young (under 14 years) and extremely vulnerable. The challenge for Europe, in line with the obligations deriving from UNCRC, is to offer them a safe, appropriate environment to live and to carefully examine and protect all their rights, including their protection from violence and exploitation and access to education, health and social participation. In this direction and following EU action plans and decisions, European states are expected to further share responsibilities, collaborate and take all appropriate measures to fully protect the rights of these children.
EN
The study comprises an introduction, main body, and a conclusion. In the introductory part presented is the issue of Code of Chief and Correctional Penalties introduced in Autonomous Polish Kingdom by the decree of 1 January, 1847, in place of the current Polish Penal Law of 1818. The author discusses the principles underlying the nature of crime, punishment, responsibility, and a system of penalties which is to act as a deterrent. The article presents the state of research, sources and literature of the subject, as well as the aim of the study. The article comprises three parts. They deal with offences against life, matrimony and parental authority, caretaker's authority, and legal guardianship. The discussed offences against life include: patricide, killing of a family member, killing of a pregnant woman, infanticide, abortion, abandonment of a child, and suicide. The part that deals with offences against matrimony contains three spheres of offences and misdemeanours, often closely linked with the civil norms of marital law: punishable violation of essential conditions of entering into marriage, punishable violation of legal impediments to marriage, criminal responsibility of parents, guardians and priests for the violation of legal impediments to marriage, and the abuse of marital rights and obligations, as well as sexual offences against family. The last part of the article deals with offences against parental authority, caretaker's authority and guardianship, listing different types of authority abuse, offences committed by children against their parents, and abuse of authority by caretakers and guardians. The conclusion contains a succinct appraisal and an analysis of the issues in focus.
EN
The distinction between “major” and “minor” guardianships appeared with the Civil Code of Kingdom of Poland in 1825. The former was created with participation of the courts of peace (for wealthier pupils) and the latter – with the participation of local magistrates (for less wealthy). Documentation of the „minor” guardianships activities was regulated by administrative regulations. The separated court files were created for every new case. Most of them included document initiating the guardianship, one protocol of the family council’s meeting and the inventory of property. Custodial data rarely documented more activities. The magistrate officials created protocols of the family council’s meetings, and reports about the number of the guardianships establishments based on the forms sent by courts and the governmental commissions. Reports and official correspondence between magistrate and court’s and administrative authorities were documented in the general files.
PL
Z chwilą wprowadzenia Kodeksu Cywilnego Królestwa Polskiego (1825 r.) pojawiło się rozróżnienie na opieki „większe” i „mniejsze”. Pierwsze urządzane były przy udziale sądów pokoju (dla bogatszych pupili), drugie – przy udziale urzędów lokalnych (dla uboższych). Dokumentowanie czynności opiek mniejszych było regulowane przepisami administracyjnymi. Dla nowej sprawy zakładane były osobne akta. Większość z nich zawierała pismo inicjujące ustanowienie opieki, jeden protokół posiedzenia rady familijnej i spis inwentarza majątku. Akta pupilarne rzadko dokumentowały więcej czynności. Na podstawie przesłanych wcześniej przez sądy i komisje rządowe wzorów, urzędnicy sporządzali protokoły posiedzeń rad familijnych i raporty o liczbie ustanowionych opiek. Raporty i korespondencja urzędowa między magistratem a organami sądowymi i administracyjnymi była dokumentowana w aktach generalnych.
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