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1

Labour Exploitation in the Italian Agricultural Sector: “The Way of Production”

100%

Cavanna P.

Archiwum Kryminologii

|

2018

|

issue XL

115-151

EN

Despite a solid legal framework, labour exploitation seems to be “the way of production”in the Italian agricultural sector, built around the goal of cutting costs and maximisingprofits through underpayment of wages. Long working hours and underpayments,physical and psychological violence, the control over the workers’ mobility and extrapaymentsfor food and water have led the media to decry the existence of “modernslavery”. The paper aims to provide a picture of the phenomenon, overcoming a stereotypicalperception of victims while challenging the assumption that criminal law isthe panacea. Indeed, the contention is that a better understanding of the phenomenonand its complexities might suggest a more promising range of tools for action.The article is divided into three sections. After an introduction of the issues at stakewithin the EU context, official statistics on recorded crime at the global, European andnational levels are presented and their reliability discussed. All available estimates andofficial statistics on recorded crime can only ever show a fraction of the full volumeof the phenomenon as defined, captured and processed by institutional mechanisms.Importantly, victims – the key resources of information – are reluctant to report theirexperiences to the authorities since they fear deportation. This places huge challengeson the identification of potential cases. The second section focuses on the Italianagriculture and its own peculiarities (e.g. prevalence of undeclared work and illegalgangmastering). Italy is at the centre of the reflection to provide tangible exampleswithin a global perspective, at the intersection of labour market and migration policies.Four cases are analysed to grasp the complexity of the context in which exploitationoccurs: i) a case of slavery in the Apulian countryside; ii) “double exploitation” ofRomanian women in Sicilian greenhouses; iii) the case of the Sikh community exploitedin Central Italy, and iv) exploitative working conditions in the “quality food” productchains in the North of Italy. This paper seeks, indeed, to follow the teaching thatcriminology stands as the empirical basis for criminal law. Such a focus on cases isintended to develop a conceptual model of the business of labour exploitation to deepenthe understanding of its modus operandi, expanding the knowledge about how labourexploitation allows businesses to turn a profit. The very lesson to be learned is that,in Italy, labour exploitation seems to be “the way of production” rather than a “few badapples”. As a result, consumers can easily come into contact with labour exploitationwhenever they eat, although they are increasingly pressing companies to act responsibly.The third section investigates who is a victim of labour exploitation, bearing in mindthat stereotypes influence social perceptions regarding victims of crime. The realitycoming out is more complex and fraught than what media usually report. Indeed,media tend to reproduce stereotypical images, involving extreme violence and control,organised crime groups and illegal immigration, missing a wider discussion of whatwould need to be changed to prevent exploitation from penetrating food supplychains. Subsequently, the concept of corporate crime is introduced. This may helpto conceptualise labour exploitation as made up by the organisation’s structure, alsoshedding light on labour exploitation as a form of negligence by the State. Finally,specific policy recommendations are made for strengthening the currently availableredress, leaving criminal law tools as the last resort. Society needs a long-term targetedand multi-level strategy addressing, in a coherent way, the many intertwined factorsthat leave workers vulnerable, both individual factors (e.g. poverty, discrimination,precarious legal status, etc.) and deficiencies in the regulation of labour market andthe global economy (e.g. general lack of economic opportunities, cuts in the socialservices budgets, lack of legal and viable migratory channels, etc.). On the contrary,toughening the State response to vulnerable workers who have fallen in breach of immigration regulations will have the effect of locking more people into systemsof “modern slavery” without any hope of protection from the law.Going beyond the most traditional “black letter” methodology in legal research,the paper addresses “law in action”. Researching “in law”, legal texts and relevantcase-law will work as a backup to understanding the current legal frameworkaimed to counter labour exploitation. In researching “about law”, the economicand sociological implications are taken into account in order to gain empiricalknowledge and an understanding of how the law and legal proceedings impact onthe parties involved. This is done also for the purpose of evaluating the effectivenessof the current (intertwined) legal framework and, if needed, to facilitate a futurechange in the regulations.

2

What is labour exploitation? The Belgian and British experience

96%

Weatherburn A.

Archiwum Kryminologii

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2021

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issue XLIII/1

47-73

PL

The legal understanding of labour exploitation is a grey area. This paper will first outline some of the obstacles in international and regional law and jurisprudence, as to the understanding of exploitation in the context of human trafficking, slavery, servitude and forced labour. Secondly, taking into account recent law reforms in both Belgium and England & Wales, this paper will outline some of the key features that have emerged from the judicial handling of labour exploitation in criminal cases. Drawing on the findings from empirical analysis of criminal cases between 2010-2017 as part of doctoral research, this paper will first of all outline similarities, differences and challenges to ensuring a clear understanding of the meaning of labour exploitation in the context of human trafficking. The findings will provide insight into how to strengthen a harmonised and robust response to human trafficking. Prawne rozumienie pojęcia wykorzystania do pracy nie jest do końca jasne. W niniejszym artykule po pierwsze zostały przedstawione niektóre przeszkody, wynikające z prawa czy orzecznictwa na poziomie międzynarodowym oraz regionalnym, które utrudniają zrozumienie takich zagadnień jak wykorzystanie w kontekście handlu ludźmi, niewolnictwa, poddaństwa czy pracy przymusowej. Po drugie zaś, zostały omówione kluczowe wnioski, jakie wynikają z badania akt spraw karnych dotyczących wykorzystania pracowników do pracy, które przedstawiono przy uwzględnieniu ostatnich reform prawa mających miejsce w Belgii oraz Anglii i Walii. Badania empiryczne objęły lata 2010-2017 i zostały przeprowadzone w ramach badań doktorskich. W artykule pokazano przede wszystkim podobieństwa, różnice i wyzwania odnośnie do opracowania jasnej i zrozumiałej definicji pojęcia wykorzystania do pracy w kontekście handlu ludźmi. Wyniki tych analiz pozwolą zrozumieć, w jaki sposób należy wzmocnić zharmonizowaną i zdecydowaną reakcję na zjawisko handlu ludźmi.

EN

The legal understanding of labour exploitation is a grey area. This paper will first outline some of the obstacles in international and regional law and jurisprudence, as to the understanding of exploitation in the context of human trafficking, slavery, servitude and forced labour. Secondly, taking into account recent law reforms in both Belgium and England & Wales, this paper will outline some of the key features that have emerged from the judicial handling of labour exploitation in criminal cases. Drawing on the findings from empirical analysis of criminal cases between 2010-2017 as part of doctoral research, this paper will first of all outline similarities, differences and challenges to ensuring a clear understanding of the meaning of labour exploitation in the context of human trafficking. The findings will provide insight into how to strengthen a harmonised and robust response to human trafficking.

3

Are we ‘leaving no-one behind’? How gaps in modern slavery programmes allow forced labour among adolescent girls in the garment and textile industries

95%

Bryant K., Joudo B.

Archiwum Kryminologii

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2021

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issue XLIII/1

19-46

PL

This article will examine the efficacy of current programme services for adolescent girls at risk of forced labour through an analysis of Walk Free’s Promising Practices Database. The Database is a collection of evaluations of anti-slavery and counter-trafficking programmes since 2000, categorised by type of intervention, location of programme, and target population, among other terms. This article identifies what lessons can be learnt, if any, to both prevent and tackle the forced labour of adolescent girls, with a particular focus on the garment and textile industries. We examine a subset of the Promising Practices Database of 81 evaluations, where at least one component in programme design was targeted at adolescent girls. We find that, in line with other critiques of human trafficking research, most evaluations are disproportionately focussed on programmes tackling sex trafficking to the exclusion of other forms of forced labour. Based on two existing evaluations, and related programmes in the garment sector, we determine the importance of community-led, inclusive, rights-based awareness-raising and the need to tailor interventions specifically to the needs and life-stage of the target group. W niniejszym artykule przeanalizowana zostanie skuteczność obecnych programów dla dziewcząt zagrożonych pracą przymusową poprzez analizę bazy danych Walk Free's Promising Practices Database. Baza danych jest zbiorem ewaluacji programów przeciwdziałania niewolnictwu i handlowi ludźmi od 2000 roku, podzielonych m.in. na kategorie według rodzaju interwencji, lokalizacji programu i populacji docelowej. W niniejszym artykule określono, jakie wnioski można wyciągnąć, jeśli w ogóle, w celu zapobiegania i zwalczania pracy przymusowej młodocianych dziewcząt, ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem przemysłu odzieżowego i tekstylnego. Analizujemy podzbiór bazy danych Promising Practices Database, obejmującej 81 ewaluacji, w których przynajmniej jeden komponent programu był skierowany do nastolatków. Stwierdzamy, że zgodnie z innymi krytykami badań nad handlem ludźmi, większość ewaluacji jest nieproporcjonalnie skupiona na programach zajmujących się handlem seksualnym, z wyłączeniem innych form pracy przymusowej. Na podstawie dwóch istniejących ewaluacji i powiązanego z nimi programowania w sektorze odzieżowym, stwierdzamy, jak ważne jest podnoszenie świadomości w oparciu o prawa i potrzeby społeczności lokalnej oraz dostosowanie interwencji do potrzeb i etapu życia grupy docelowej.

EN

This article will examine the efficacy of current programme services for adolescent girls at risk of forced labour through an analysis of Walk Free’s Promising Practices Database. The Database is a collection of evaluations of anti-slavery and counter-trafficking programmes since 2000, categorised by type of intervention, location of programme, and target population, among other terms. This article identifies what lessons can be learnt, if any, to both prevent and tackle the forced labour of adolescent girls, with a particular focus on the garment and textile industries. We examine a subset of the Promising Practices Database of 81 evaluations, where at least one component in programme design was targeted at adolescent girls. We find that, in line with other critiques of human trafficking research, most evaluations are disproportionately focussed on programmes tackling sex trafficking to the exclusion of other forms of forced labour. Based on two existing evaluations, and related programmes in the garment sector, we determine the importance of community-led, inclusive, rights-based awareness-raising and the need to tailor interventions specifically to the needs and life-stage of the target group.

4

Taking stock of labour trafficking in the Netherlands

77%

van Meeteren M., Heideman N.

Archiwum Kryminologii

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2021

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issue XLIII/1

143-168

PL

In the Netherlands, labour trafficking was criminalised as human trafficking in 2005. Since then, criminal investigations into labour trafficking have slowly taken off. Building on a content analysis of files and reports from the labour inspectorate, this paper contributes to the currently limited body of knowledge on the nature of labour trafficking. It does so by focussing on scholarly debates about the nature of the crime and its relation to labour migration. Based on the analysis, it is argued that the bulk of labour trafficking should be understood as a by-product of labour migration, and that labour trafficking often arises from the economic opportunistic motives of businesses and only occasionally occurs in criminal environments. In addition, the paper adds to our understanding of the prosecution of human trafficking by analysing why so many labour trafficking cases in the Netherlands have not resulted in a conviction. Building on a qualitative analysis of case law, it is shown that a major problem in getting suspects convicted is that the human rights threshold against which cases of labour trafficking are tested is often not surpassed, as the abuses in the labour market are often deemed not excessive enough to qualify as human trafficking. W Holandii praca przymusowa jest jedną z form przestępstwa handlu ludźmi od 2005 roku. Od tego momentu stopniowo zaczęto prowadzić postępowania karne w sprawach o pracę przymusową. Niniejszy artykuł, oparty o badanie aktowe i analizę raportów inspekcji pracy, stanowi uzupełnienie cały czas stosunkowo niewielkiej wiedzy na temat zjawiska pracy przymusowej. Koncentruje się na naukowych rozważaniach o przestępstwie i jego związku z migracją zarobkową. Przeprowadzona analiza pozwala stwierdzić, że praca przymusowa jest zwykle postrzegana jako zjawisko związane z handlem ludźmi (stanowiąc niejako jego „produkt uboczny”), podczas gdy tak naprawdę sporadycznie pojawia się ona w środowiskach przestępczych. Częściej bowiem wynika z wyrachowanego działania samych przedsiębiorstw opartego na przesłankach czysto ekonomicznych. Niniejszy artykuł daje także szerszy obraz ścigania przestępstwa handlu ludźmi pozwalając jednocześnie zrozumieć, dlaczego wiele spraw o handel ludźmi do pracy przymusowej w Holandii nie zakończyło się skazaniem. W oparciu o analizę jakościową wydanych orzeczeń wykazano, że głównym problemem przy skazaniu podejrzanych o pracę przymusową jest to, że stopień naruszenia praw człowieka (wykorzystania) w takich sprawach nie jest na tyle wysoki, a nadużycia na rynku pracy nie na tyle poważne, by można je było zakwalifikować jako przestępstwo handlu ludźmi.

EN

In the Netherlands, labour trafficking was criminalised as human trafficking in 2005. Since then, criminal investigations into labour trafficking have slowly taken off. Building on a content analysis of files and reports from the labour inspectorate, this paper contributes to the currently limited body of knowledge on the nature of labour trafficking. It does so by focussing on scholarly debates about the nature of the crime and its relation to labour migration. Based on the analysis, it is argued that the bulk of labour trafficking should be understood as a by-product of labour migration, and that labour trafficking often arises from the economic opportunistic motives of businesses and only occasionally occurs in criminal environments. In addition, the paper adds to our understanding of the prosecution of human trafficking by analysing why so many labour trafficking cases in the Netherlands have not resulted in a conviction. Building on a qualitative analysis of case law, it is shown that a major problem in getting suspects convicted is that the human rights threshold against which cases of labour trafficking are tested is often not surpassed, as the abuses in the labour market are often deemed not excessive enough to qualify as human trafficking.

5

Labour exploitation of Bulgarian migrants in Europe: coping mechanisms

77%

Velizarova M., Kirov V.

Przegląd Socjologiczny

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2018

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vol. LXVII (67)

|

issue 3

63-84

PL

Wyzysk pracowników i jego najbardziej wyraziste formy, jakimi są praca przymusowa czy przemyt ludzi, nie są zjawiskami nowymi. Są one obecne w całej Europie Środkowo-Wschodniej, w tym w szczególności w Bułgarii. Artykuł analizuje mechanizmy wykorzystywane przez emigrantów w celu poradzenia sobie z takiego typu wyzwaniami na rynku pracy. Analiza opiera się na wywiadach jakościowych z niskowykwalifikowanymi emigrantami z Bułgarii w krajach UE. Silne sieci społeczne wykorzystywane w czasie pierwszych działań migracyjnych uznane zostają za mechanizm, który ogranicza ryzyko wyzysku.

EN

Labour exploitation and its extreme forms, such as forced labour and trafficking of human beings, are not new phenomena. They are also present throughout Central and Eastern Europe and Bulgaria in particular. This article explores the mechanisms used by workers to overcome these challenges on the labour market. The analysis is based on qualitative interviews with low-skilled Bulgarian migrants in EU countries. Strong social networks used during the first migration action are considered as a mechanism which mitigates the risks of exploitation.

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4 Archiwum Kryminologii

1 Przegląd Socjologiczny

1 Bryant K.

1 Cavanna P.

1 Heideman N.

1 Joudo B.

1 Kirov V.

1 Velizarova M.

1 Weatherburn A.

1 van Meeteren M.

3 2021

2 2018

Labour Exploitation in the Italian Agricultural Sector: “The Way of Production”

What is labour exploitation? The Belgian and British experience

Are we ‘leaving no-one behind’? How gaps in modern slavery programmes allow forced labour among adolescent girls in the garment and textile industries

Taking stock of labour trafficking in the Netherlands

Labour exploitation of Bulgarian migrants in Europe: coping mechanisms