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1
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Top-down contingent feature-specific orienting with and without awareness of the visual input

100%
Ansorge U., Horstmann G., Scharlau I.
Advances in Cognitive Psychology
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2011
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vol. 7
108-119
EN
In the present article, the role of endogenous feature-specific orienting for conscious and unconscious vision is reviewed. We start with an overview of orienting. We proceed with a review of masking research, and the definition of the criteria of experimental protocols that demonstrate endogenous and exogenous orienting, respectively. Against this background of criteria, we assess studies of unconscious orienting and come to the conclusion that so far studies of unconscious orienting demonstrated endogenous feature-specific orienting. The review closes with a discussion of the role of unconscious orienting in action control.
2
Content available remote

An analysis of visual masking, with a defense of 'Stopped Processing'

100%
Reeves A.
Advances in Cognitive Psychology
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2007
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vol. 3
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issue 1-2
57-65
EN
The use of a backward mask (a patterned mask which follows the target in time) to 'stop the processing' of the target illustrates an important application of masking - the study of the 'microgenesis' of visual perception, that is, visual processing over about the first one-fifth of a second. This paper provides evidence for stopped processing and some applications of this to object recognition and letter detection. The paper also discusses the notion of an 'active filter' which may help to account for Type-A masking but at best can only account for Type-B masking in part. I conclude that masking, while illuminating various areas of vision science, is under-utilized, perhaps because the theoretical justification for such masking is still uncertain, and perhaps because of the care needed to establish that the mask does indeed 'stop' processing.
3
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Visual masking: past accomplishments, present status, future developments

100%
Breitmeyer B.
Advances in Cognitive Psychology
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2007
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vol. 3
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issue 1-2
9-20
EN
Visual masking, throughout its history, has been used as an investigative tool in exploring the temporal dynamics of visual perception, beginning with retinal processes and ending in cortical processes concerned with the conscious registration of stimuli. However, visual masking also has been a phenomenon deemed worthy of study in its own right. Most of the recent uses of visual masking have focused on the study of central processes, particularly those involved in feature, object and scene representations, in attentional control mechanisms, and in phenomenal awareness. In recent years our understanding of the phenomenon and cortical mechanisms of visual masking also has benefited from several brain imaging techniques and from a number of sophisticated and neurophysiologically plausible neural network models. Key issues and problems are discussed with the aim of guiding future empirical and theoretical research.
4

Eesti jouluaja sanditajad

100%
Tedre U.
Mäetagused
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2015
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vol. 61
19-68
EN
Article discusses Estonian mumming traditions at Christmastime: their spread, age and gender of the participants, costumes and masking, communication between the hosting family and the mummers, and the gifts given to the mummers.
5

Talsipuhade sanditamised ja maskid bessermanide tanapaevases kalendrikombestikus

88%
Popova J.
Mäetagused
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2014
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vol. 57
91-114
EN
The article gives an overview of the current customs and masking in the ethnic group of Bessermens at talsipühad (old name for Christmas). The author discusses the changes that have taken place in masking traditions as well as the importance of rituals in today’s village community. Attention is focused on mythological images of talsi spirits, restrictions related to space and time, preferences during holidays, peculiarities of masking, ritual cuisine and etiquette. In recent years the traditional customs and their elements have started to take root in today’s holiday culture; yet, a parallel development of some processes can be observed here: modern culture actively influences the archaic elements and their evolution.
6
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Visual similarity in masking and priming: The critical role of task relevance

88%
Enns J., Oriet C.
Advances in Cognitive Psychology
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2007
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vol. 3
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issue 1-2
211-226
EN
Cognitive scientists use rapid image sequences to study both the emergence of conscious perception (visual masking) and the unconscious processes involved in response preparation (masked priming). The present study asked two questions: (1) Does image similarity influence masking and priming in the same way? (2) Are similarity effects in both tasks governed by the extent of feature overlap in the images or only by task-relevant features? Participants in Experiment 1 classified human faces using a single dimension even though the faces varied in three dimensions (emotion, race, sex). Abstract geometric shapes and colors were tested in the same way in Experiment 2. Results showed that similarityreducedthe visibility of the target in the masking task andincreasedresponse speed in the priming task, pointing to a double-dissociation between the two tasks. Results also showed that only task-relevant (not objective) similarity influenced masking and priming, implying that both tasks are influenced from the beginning by intentions of the participant. These findings are interpreted within the framework of a reentrant theory of visual perception. They imply that intentions can influence object formation prior to the separation of vision for perception and vision for action.
7
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Visual masking by transcranial magnetic stimulation in the first 80 milliseconds

88%
Kammer T.
Advances in Cognitive Psychology
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2007
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vol. 3
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issue 1-2
177-179
EN
Stimulation of the occipital cortex with transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMs) can interfere with visual processing and may cause masking comparable to visual masking. The effect is most pronounced when the TMS pulse is delivered with stimulus onset asynchronies (SOAs) of 80-100 ms. In a few experiments a second time window of TMS-induced visual masking has been identified with its maximum around an SOA of 40 ms. The existence of two masking windows has been taken as evidence for two distinct visual processes taking place in V1: an early feedforward component and a later re-entrant feedback component. The evidence for the existence of two separate TMS time windows is reviewed. The early time window was not reproducible in all the attempts to characterize TMs masking effects. Interindividual anatomical differences in the location of V1 might contribute to the heterogeneous results.
8
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Measuring unconscious cognition: Beyond the zero-awareness criterion

75%
Schmidt T.
Advances in Cognitive Psychology
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2007
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vol. 3
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issue 1-2
275-287
EN
Visual masking can be employed to manipulate observers' awareness of critical stimuli in studies of masked priming. This paper discusses two different lines of attack for establishing unconscious cognition in such experiments. Firstly,simple dissociationsbetweendirect measures (D)of visual awareness andindirect measures (I)of processing per se occur when I has some nonzero value whileDis at chance level; the traditional requirement of zero awareness is necessary for this criterion only. In contrast,double dissociationsoccur when some experimental manipulation has opposite effects on I andD, for instance, increasing priming effects despite decreasing prime identification performance (Schmidt & Vorberg, 2006). Double dissociations require much weaker measurement assumptions than other criteria. An attractive alternative to this dissociation approach would be to use tasks that are known to violatenecessary conditionsof visual awareness altogether. In particular, it is argued here that priming effects in speeded pointing movements (Schmidt, Niehaus, & Nagel, 2006) occur in the absence of the recurrent processing that is often assumed to be a necessary condition for awareness (for instance, DiLollo, Enns, & Rensink, 2000; Lamme & Roelfsema, 2000). Feedforward tasks such as this might thus be used to measure the time-course of unconscious processing directly, before intracortical feedback and awareness come into play.
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Vokaalide ja klusiilide intensiivsussuhted laulmisel teksti arusaadavuse mõjutajana

75%
Vurma A., Dede T., Kala V., Meister E., Meister L., Raju M., Ross J.
Mäetagused
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2023
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vol. 87
31-70
EN
Background. In operatic singing, poor text intelligibility is often a problem. Some voice teachers believe that singers should articulate consonants more strongly to improve intelligibility, while others believe that this should be avoided. Aim. The objective of this study is to ascertain (1) whether there is a tendency in operatic singing by which, compared to speaking, the intensity of all speech sounds is greater, but the intensity of voiceless plosive bursts increases proportionally less than that of vowels, which may make the recognition of plosives more difficult; and (2) whether pronouncing the bursts of voiceless plosives more strongly would improve their recognition. Method. The investigation was split into two stages. In the first stage, five classically trained professional Estonian singers (soprano, mezzo-soprano, tenor, baritone, bass) were asked (1) to sing an aria in Italian from a romantic period opera, and (2) to read the text of the same aria. The recordings were segmented on the level of single speech sounds, and the intensity level of each sound was measured with the help of the software Praat. In addition, recordings of sung performances by three Italian singers (two sopranos and a baritone) and examples of spoken text by two different speakers were similarly analyzed. In the second stage, a perception test with 60 listeners (21 male, 38 female, and one non-binary) was carried out. The listeners were aged between 11 and 74. Seventy-two sequences /a/–/k/–/a/, /a/–/p/–/a/ and /a/–/t/–/a/, sung by a mezzo-soprano on G4, were played to the listeners as stimuli. The listener had to identify the plosive in the middle of each stimulus. The intensity level of the plosive varied in four steps (including one step in which the plosive burst was removed and replaced with silence). To some stimuli sets were added either reverberation (to imitate room acoustics) or pink noise (to imitate masking sounds from accompaniment or ensemble partners); further stimuli sets included the addition of both reverberation and pink noise. Results. The first stage of the research showed that in the case of the Estonian singers the intensity of the sung vowels was, on average, 14.2 dB greater than that of the corresponding spoken speech sounds, whereas the intensity of the voiceless plosive bursts increased by an average of only 7.1 dB. The intensity difference between sung and spoken speech sounds was similar in the case of Italian vocalists. Producing the plosive bursts more strongly generally tended to improve the recognition of plosives only when reverberation and/or pink noise were added to the stimuli. The probable cause of lowered recognition is the masking of plosives by the room reflections of the preceding vowels and sounds from the accompaniment and ensemble partners. In the case of /p/, too intense a burst could actually diminish recognition to some extent. The recognition was often above the level of chance even if the burst was removed, indicating that besides the plosive burst some other clues to identify the plosive exist (such as the formants’ glide from the locus of the plosive to the adjacent vowel). Conclusions. There is no need to pronounce voiceless plosives with exaggerated vigor in singing if the room reverberation is small and there are no masking sounds from other musicians. The exception is /k/, which may remain unidentified if the plosive burst is not perceived. In poorer acoustic conditions, a stronger burst may improve intelligibility. However, the singer should be cautious not to overemphasize the /p/, as this may worsen its recognition.
10
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Binding binding: Departure points for a different version of the perceptual retouch theory

75%
Bachmann T.
Advances in Cognitive Psychology
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2007
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vol. 3
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issue 1-2
41-55
EN
In the perceptual retouch theory, masking and related microgenetic phenomena were explained as a result of interaction between specific cortical representational systems and the non-specific sub-cortical modulation system. Masking appears as deprivation of sufficient modulation of the consciousness mechanism suffered by the target-specific signals because of the temporal delay of non-specific modulation (necessary for conscious representation), which explicates the later-coming mask information instead of the already decayed target information. The core of the model envisaged relative magnitudes of EPSPs of single cortical cells driven by target and mask signals at the moment when the nonspecific, presynaptic, excitatory input arrives from the thalamus. In the light of the current evidence about the importance of synchronised activity of specific and non-specific systems in generating consciousness, the retouch theory requires perhaps a different view. This article presents some premises for modification of the retouch theory, where instead of the cumulative presynaptic spike activities and EPSPs of single cells, the oscillatory activity in the gamma range of the participating systems is considered and shown to be consistent with the basic ideas of the retouch theory. In this conceptualisation, O-binding refers to specific encoding which is based on gamma-band synchronised oscillations in the activity of specific cortical sensory modules that represent features and objects; C-binding refers to the gamma-band oscillations in the activity of the non-specific thalamic systems, which is necessary for the O-binding based data to become consciously experienced.
11
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Disentangling neural processing of masked and masking stimulus by means of event-related contralateral — ipsilateral differences of EEG potentials

75%
Verleger R., Jaśkowski P.
Advances in Cognitive Psychology
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2007
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vol. 3
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issue 1-2
193-210
EN
In spite of the excellent temporal resolution of event-related EEG potentials (ERPs), the overlapping potentials evoked by masked and masking stimuli are hard to disentangle. However, when both masked and masking stimuli consist of pairs of relevant and irrelevant stimuli, one left and one right from fixation, with the side of the relevant element varying between pairs, effects of masked and masking stimuli can be distinguished by means of the contralateral preponderance of the potentials evoked by the relevant elements, because the relevant elements may independently change sides in masked and masking stimuli. Based on a reanalysis of data from which only selected contralateral-ipsilateral effects had been previously published, the present contribution will provide a more complete picture of the ERP effects in a masked-priming task. Indeed, effects evoked by masked primes and masking targets heavily overlapped in conventional ERPs and could be disentangled to a certain degree by contralateral-ipsilateral differences. Their major component, the N2pc, is interpreted as indicating preferential processing of stimuli matching the target template, which process can neither be identified with conscious perception nor with shifts of spatial attention. The measurements showed that the triggering of response preparation by the masked stimuli did not depend on their discriminability, and their priming effects on the processing of the following target stimuli were qualitatively different for stimulus identification and for response preparation. These results provide another piece of evidence for the independence of motor-related and perception-related effects of masked stimuli.
12

Valgevene voinadal: paiksed tunnused ja hetkeseis

75%
Leshkevich A.
Mäetagused
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2018
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vol. 72
137-152
EN
The article gives an overview of the celebrations held during Maslenitsa (Butter Week, the week before Great Lent) in Belarus, describing local peculiarities and the current situation. In Belarusian calendar-related customs, Maslenitsa stands on the borderline between the winter and spring calendar cycle. The name of the holiday in Belarusian (maslenka) and its variants are derived from the word maslo (butter), which refers to the importance of dairy products in the holiday meals. During Maslenitsa, all Belarusians eat blini and dairy products, go for rides, visit friends, and sing. Local variants of celebrations have been very diverse. The peculiarity of northern Belarus was masking and the symbolic ‘burying’ of winter, carried out mainly by women. The reminiscences recorded in the borderland regions of the Vitebsk, Mogilev, and Minsk oblasts (north-eastern part of Belarus) describe the honouring of young families and midwives, as well as processions related to these events, marking of young bachelors, swinging, and singing Easter songs – the entire diversity of Maslenitsa. The eastern part of Belarus featured the burning of straw dummies during Maslenitsa, and in the south a characteristic ritual was calling the spring, for which bird-shaped cookies were baked. Swinging is also classified as a spring ritual, which was known mainly in the northern part of Belarus. The most peculiar feature of Maslenitsa in western Belarus was the so-called women’s rituals. Archaic motifs have survived in the customs of Maslenitsa until today, although in Belarusian cities not local traditions but rather those rooted in Russian cultural heritage are maintained – the ones that were disseminated in the mass media and methodological guidelines for cultural workers of the 1950s–1960s in the republics of the Soviet Union. Most of the rituals have lost their magic meaning, yet Maslenitsa has preserved its inherent playfulness, world perception characteristic of holidays, energy, and activeness.
13
Content available remote

Metacontrast masking and the cortical representation of surface color: dynamical aspects of edge integration and contrast gain control

63%
Rudd M.
Advances in Cognitive Psychology
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2007
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vol. 3
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issue 1-2
327-347
EN
This paper reviews recent theoretical and experimental work supporting the idea that brightness is computed in a series of neural stages involving edge integration and contrast gain control. It is proposed here that metacontrast and paracontrast masking occur as byproducts of the dynamical properties of these neural mechanisms. The brightness computation model assumes, more specifically, that early visual neurons in the retina, and cortical areas V1 and V2, encode local edge signals whose magnitudes are proportional to the logarithms of the luminance ratios at luminance edges within the retinal image. These local edge signals give rise to secondary neural lightness and darkness spatial induction signals, which are summed at a later stage of cortical processing to produce a neural representation of surface color, or achromatic color, in the case of the chromatically neutral stimuli considered here. Prior to the spatial summation of these edge-based induction signals, the weights assigned to local edge contrast are adjusted by cortical gain mechanisms involving both lateral interactions between neural edge detectors and top-down attentional control. We have previously constructed and computer-simulated a neural model of achromatic color perception based on these principles and have shown that our model gives a good quantitative account of the results of several brightness matching experiments. Adding to this model the realistic dynamical assumptions that 1) the neurons that encode local contrast exhibit transient firing rate enhancement at the onset of an edge, and 2) that the effects of contrast gain control take time to spread between edges, results in a dynamic model of brightness computation that predicts the existence Broca-Sulzer transient brightness enhancement of the target, Type Bmetacontrast masking, and a form of paracontrast masking in which the target brightness is enhanced when the mask precedes the target in time.
14
Content available remote

Common-onset masking simulated with a distributed-code model

63%
Bridgeman B.
Advances in Cognitive Psychology
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2007
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vol. 3
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issue 1-2
33-40
EN
A distributed-coding model incorporating lateral inhibition in a simulated nerve network has been successful in accounting for many properties of backward masking (Bridgeman, 1971, 1978), linking modeling with neurophysiology and psychophysics. Metacontrast is a variety of backward masking that is of particular interest in uncovering properties of visual coding because target and mask do not overlap in time or space, and it is the first stimulus that is reduced in visibility, not the second. The lateral inhibitory model can also simulate common-onset masking, where a target and mask appear simultaneously but the mask disappears after a variable delay, and it can reproduce qualitatively the effects of attention on object substitution by varying the time interval over which sensory codes are analyzed.
15
Publication available in full text mode
Content available

Concealing the Crime of Homicide by the Perpetrator

63%
Kagan K.
Studia Iuridica Lublinensia
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2018
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vol. 27
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issue 4
EN
This article deals with the issue of masking the homicide by its perpetrator. The considerations made hereby are an attempt to bring the problem of the behavior of the homicide culprit at the crime scene, as well as outside of it, which are aimed at avoiding criminal liability for the committed crime. Unlimited human imagination leads to a multitude of ways in which criminals can behave in order to try to hinder or prevent their detection by law enforcement agencies. In addition, it should be noted that on the basis of the Polish Penal Code, the perpetrators who mask their offences do not bear criminal liability.
PL
W artykule omówiono zagadnienie maskowania przestępstwa zabójstwa przez jego sprawcę. Przeprowadzone rozważania stanowią próbę przybliżenia problematyki dotyczącej sposobów postępowania sprawców zabójstw, zarówno na miejscu popełnienia przestępstwa, jak i poza nim, mających na celu uniknięcie odpowiedzialności karnej za popełnioną zbrodnię. Nieograniczona wyobraźnia ludzka przekłada się na mnogość sposobów zachowania przestępców, mających na celu utrudnienie lub uniemożliwienie ich wykrycia przez organy ścigania. Ponadto należy zauważyć, że na gruncie obowiązującego Kodeksu karnego sprawcy, którzy maskują popełnione przez siebie przestępstwo, dopuszczają się tzw. samopoplecznictwa, za które nie ponoszą odpowiedzialności karnej.
16
Content available remote

The role of feedback in visual masking and visual processing

51%
Macknik S., Martinez-Conde S.
Advances in Cognitive Psychology
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2007
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vol. 3
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issue 1-2
125-152
EN
This paper reviews the potential role of feedback in visual masking, for and against. Our analysis reveals constraints for feedback mechanisms that limit their potential role in visual masking, and in all other general brain functions. We propose a feedforward model of visual masking and provide a hypothesis to explain the role of feedback in visual masking and visual processing in general. We review the anatomy and physiology of feedback mechanisms, and propose that the massive ratio of feedback versus feedforward connections in the visual system may be explained solely by the critical need for top-down attentional modulation. We discuss the merits of visual masking as a tool to discover the neural correlates of consciousness, especially as compared to other popular illusions, such as binocular rivalry. Finally, we propose a new set of neurophysiological standards needed to establish whether any given neuron or brain circuit may be the neural substrate of awareness.
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