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EN
After the end of the Cold War, the relations between the Russian Federation and the states of the Near East and North Africa underwent many different developmental stages during the course of the next two decades. Whereas in the period of Boris Nikolayevich Yeltsin’s presidency in the 1990s this region remained rather in the background of Russia’s interests, in the first decade of the 21st century Russia renewed its influence in this region during the presidencies of Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin and then Dmitry Anatolyevich Medvedev. The events of the Arab Spring became a new challenge for Russia in 2011. In the context of these actualities, there are two main goals for this article. The first is to compare the position of the Russian Federation’s foreign and security policies in the region of the Near East and North Africa in the periods before and during the Arab Spring against the background of Russian interests. The second goal of the article is to define the influence of post-revolutionary developments on Russian foreign and security policy in the region of the Near East and North Africa.
EN
The subject of the article is an analysis of economic basis of Pax Americana in the prospect of 10‑20 years. The main factors of geopolitical power are: wealth – entire and per capita, production of leading goods and innovations. An analysis of the position different countries in the advancement of the new economy (knowledge based economy) prove that in the next 20 years USA will be most important power of the west world. Changes on world market of energy will cause changes in defining national interest of USA.
EN
The main goal of the article is to establish how a small country, Slovenia, promoted its national interests when it held the Presidency of the Council of the EU, how this experience fits into the theory of small states and what lessons can be drawn for other small states. Based on a questionnaire administered to key Slovenian actors in the presidency, the analysis confirmed some of the theoretical expectations and revealed certain disparities. Our analysis confirms theoretical predictions that a member state can push through its national interests more easily during its presidency because it possesses certain powers that enable it to set the agenda, which is the most effective way of realising national interests. Especially true in the case of small state presidencies, advocating national interests can also be facilitated by a smaller range of priorities and a greater level of coincidence with the interests of other key actors. We revealed that, besides the country’s size, other factors also limited its ability to fulfil its national interests. In addition to a weak ability for coalition building and lobbying, the two main factors of constraint were the lack of soft knowledge among Slovenian officials and weak coordination among policy agents.
EN
This article seeks to elaborate the theoretical discourse on different, competing explanations of the European integration, invoking the notion of the national interest that plays an essential role in the process. Despite increasing integration, the European interest remains quite different from the sum of the national interests of all Member States, and different theories, by presenting explanations of the integration process, raise or diminish its importance. The major premise of the intergovernmental theory is that the integration progress can be analyzed as an intergovernmental regime designed to coordinate the economic and political interdependence negotiated through bargaining. This implies that Member States’ behavior reflects actions taken by their governments based on rational choice, limited only by the domestic social demands and external strategic international environment. According to intergovernmentalism this process, within which states’ preferences are shaped, is in fact the process of national interest formation. In contrast, a second school of thought on integration, affiliated with supranationalism, has a more normative ambition, providing not only a description of the role of the national interest, but also bringing the ideas of its limitation, proposing changes on the mode of European governance aimed at shaping Europe in a more republican manner. Despite the dominant position of the national agents at almost every level of the European governance, for the supranational approaches, due to the multi-level structure of the European Union, controversy between national interest and European common good is rarely invoked. The assumption that one theoretical understanding and the assessment of the level of influence of the national interest as applied to the European integration can have profound legal and political implications, leads us to the conclusion that depicting the five most prominent attempts at capturing it theoretically remains essential for further analysis of the European structure and European legal order. Paradoxically, an unstable economic situation and its overreaching and predominant negative influence on all the Member States, might catalyze a redefinition of Europe and reinvigorate the discourse on both European common good and national interests.
EN
The category of a national interest is one of the most popular notions used in international relations. It has a polysemic character and is differently interpreted by various scientific perspectives. The purpose of this article is to provide a brief analysis of selected approaches of the theory of international relations to defining interests and correlating the interpretations of national interests of the Russian Federation performed on their bases. The choice of case study concerning the foreign policy of the Russian Federation is not accidental because in countries aspiring to gain world power the concept of national interest is raised while explaining the motives of decisions taken by their leaders exceptionally often. In this article, Russia’s interests will be discussed in reference to the annexation of the Crimea and Russia’s actions towards Ukraine. Those events vividly show the specificity of defining the national interests, based on one hand on the pursue to being a powerhouse and understanding the interests in the category of power and, on the other hand, resulting from the political identity of Russian elites. As a result, an assessment of the scientific utility of selected theoretical paradigms and their use in the analyses of Russia’s foreign policy will be outlined.
EN
Citizen diplomacy as a key component of diplomacy is fundamental in international relations. Through it, individual citizens help realize their countries’ national interests through unofficial interactions. For Nigeria however, the worry is whether citizen diplomacy can effectively complement official diplomatic activities in the face of the low human-capital development of her citizens. United Nations Development Pro-gramme in 2019 placed Nigeria’s human-development-index value for 2018 at 0.534, positioning the country at 158 out of the 189 countries and territories surveyed. It also classified 51.4 percent of Nigerian population as being multi-dimensionally poor with an additional 16.8 percent categorized as being vulnerable to multidimensional pov-erty. In view of this challenge therefore, this paper examined the implication of the low human-capital development on foreign relations of Nigeria. Data was collated from secondary sources while qualitative descriptive technique was used for analysis. The paper found that Nigeria’s current human capital development trajectory is incapable of stimulating citizen diplomacy into complementing the coun-try’s official diplomatic relations with other states. It also found that this situation accounts for the failure by Nigeria to actualize most of her foreign policy objectives. The paper therefore recommended improved investment in wellbeing of Nigerians for better outing in foreign relations. citizen diplomacy, human capital development, foreign policy, national interest, global system Dyplomacja obywatelska jako kluczowy komponent dyplomacji ma znaczenie fundamentalna w stosunkach międzynarodowych. Dzięki niej poszczególni obywatele pomagają realizować interesy narodowe swoich krajów po-przez nieoficjalne interakcje. W przypadku Nigerii niepokoi jednak kwestia efektywności uzupełniania przez dyplomację obywatelską czynności dyplomatycznych ze względu na niski poziom rozwoju kapitału ludzkiego jej obywateli. Program Narodów Zjednoczonych ds. Rozwoju w roku 2019 uplasował wartość wskaźnika rozwoju społecznego Nigerii na rok 2018 na poziomie 0,534, czyli na 158 miejscu z 189 badanych krajów i terytoriów. Sklasyfikował również 51,4 procent populacji Nigerii jako biednych wielowymiarowo, a dodatkowe 16,8 procent sklasyfikowano jako narażone na wielowymiarowe ubóstwo. W związku z tym w niniejszym dokumencie przeanalizowano wpływ niskiego rozwoju kapitału ludzkiego na stosunki Nigerii z zagranicą. Dane zostały zebrane ze źródeł wtórnych, natomiast w analizie została zastosowana jakościowa technika opisowa. W artykule wskazuje się, że w Nigerii aktualnie trajektorie rozwoju kapitału ludzkiego nie są w stanie stymulować dyplomację obywatelską w zakresie uzupełniania oficjalnych relacji dyplomatycznych z innymi krajami. Zostało odnotowano, że ta sytuacja także jest przyczyną niepowodzenia Nigerii w kontekście aktualizacji celów polityki międzynarodowej Nigerii. W tym artykule zawarte są zalecenia poprawienia inwestycji w dobrostan Nigeryjczyków dla lepszych wyników w relacjach z zagranicą. Dyplomacja obywatelska, rozwój kapitału ludzkiego, polityka zagraniczna, interesy narodowe, system globalny
EN
As Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono won the 2004 presidential election, it marked the end of Indonesia’s democratic transition era and experienced a dynamic change in foreign policy. The new international identity that viewed Islam as an asset was introduced by SBY, emphasizing the importance of moderate Islam as opposing extremism. The phenomenon of Islamic influence was not only the result of democratic consolidation domestically but also external factors such as the aftermath of 9/11 that portrayed Muslims as potential terrorists. For this reason, Indonesian foreign policy attempted to diminish such misconceptions and tried to be a peacemaker or a mediator in Muslim-related issues globally. To contextualize the analysis, the study focuses on the influence of Islam in Indonesian foreign policy towards the Palestinian-Israeli conflict and Pakistan. The mutual aspirations on the Palestinian statehood shared by both the government and the Muslim elements in society could be found, while religious sentiments were noticeable, as shown by the Muslim groups. In contrast, the influence of Islam in Indonesia-Pakistan relations, especially regarding the Kashmir dispute, was absent due to the difference in views of the government and the Muslim groups and constraining factors, including Indonesia’s national interest priority.
EN
The aim of this article is to present a section of Spanish research on the theory of foreign policy of the state against the background of European, American and Latin American arrangements. The publications of Luis V. Pérez Gil and Rafael Calderch Cervery were the basis of the analysis. This article is an introduction to further research. Research problems have been tackled in order to answer the following questions: 1) How do Spanish teachers define foreign policy, and which theorists of international relations do they relate to? 2) What are the phases and goals of foreign policy? 3) How do Spanish scientists define the national interest and which theoretical researchers of international relations do they refer to? The article uses methods of analysing and criticising sources.
EN
The article presents an analysis of the problems and prospects of relations between Russian Federation and Central and Eastern Europe (CEE). These relationships are discussed in broader political context of Russia's relations with the European Union. The author believes that in conflict situations the both parties are responsible. As an optimal strategy the author examines the possibility of linking the integration processes in the Eurasian region – the so-called "integration of integrations", that can become a framework for interfacing the national interests of Russia and the EU's interests. A special role in the normalization of relations in Eurasia the CEE countries are devoted to play – CEE may become a bridge between Russia and Western Europe.
RU
В статье представлен анализ проблем и перспектив отношений Российской Федерации и стран Центральной и Восточной Европы. Данные отношения рассматриваются в широком политическом контексте отношений России с Европейским Союзом. Автор полагает, что в ситуации конфликта ответственность несут обе стороны. В качестве оптимальной стратегии автор рассматривает возможности сопряжения интеграционных процессов на евра-зийском пространстве – так называемую «интеграцию интеграций», которая способна стать рамочным принципом сопряжения национальных интересов РФ и интересов стран ЕС. Особую роль в нормализации отношений в Евразии призваны сыграть страны ЦВЕ, которые могут стать моcтом между РФ и Западной Европой.
PL
Zdolność do realizacji interesów narodowych stanowi o sile i pozycji państwa. W tym celu wykorzystuje ono szereg instrumentów, które stosuje w zależności od charakteru tegoż interesu, specyfiki otoczenia polityczno-gospodarczego oraz oczekiwań społecznych. Jednym z takich instrumentów, skoncentrowanym na prowadzeniu aktywności morskiej państwa, jest marynarka wojenna. Formuła jej działania, struktura organizacyjna oraz potencjał musi więc być dostosowany do długofalowych celów strategicznych państwa, które mają umożliwić realizację interesu narodowego. Równocześnie wizja wykorzystania sił morskich powinna mieć charakter otwarty, co pozwoli na osiąganie celów strategicznych w przypadku zmiany sytuacji międzynarodowej. Zdolność adaptacji sił morskich do zmian otoczenia międzynarodowego i niezmiennego dążenia do realizacji interesu narodowego stanowi wymóg właściwej organizacji marynarki wojennej. Analiza tych działań w latach 1918- 2018 pozwala na sformułowanie tezy, iż Polska międzywojenna potrafiła stworzyć i wykorzystać potencjał Marynarki Wojennej do realizacji interesu narodowego, jakim było utrzymanie suwerenności i ciągłości państwa. Natomiast współcześnie państwo polskie nie potrafi w pełni wykorzystać tego instrumentu, głównie ze względu na brak umiejętności zdefiniowania istoty pojęcia interes narodowy w zglobalizowanym świecie.
EN
The ability to pursue national interests determines the strength and position of the state. To this end, it uses a number of instruments, depending on the nature of the interest, the specificity of the political and economic environment and social expectations. One of such instruments, focused on conducting maritime activity of the state, is the navy. The formula of its operation, organizational structure and potential must therefore be adapted to the long-term strategic goals of the state, which are to enable the realization of the national interest. At the same time, the vision of the use of naval forces should be open, which will allow to achieve strategic goals in the event of a change in the international situation. The ability to adapt the naval forces to changes in the international environment and the unchanging pursuit of national interest is a requirement for proper organization of the navy. The analysis of these activities in the years 1918-2018 allows us to formulate the thesis that interwar Poland was able to create and use the Navy's potential to implement the national interest, which was to maintain the sovereignty and continuity of the state. However, today the Polish state is not able to make full use of this instrument, mainly due to the lack of ability to define the essence of the concept of national interest in a globalized world
PL
Serbia charakteryzuje się niestabilnością polityczną i państwową od początku swojej nowożytnej historii. Problemy z określeniem racjonalnego interesu narodowego, kwestie granic państwa, strategii rozwoju pokazują, że w tym kraju istnieją poważne problemy z utworzeniem syntezy społecznej rozumianej jako „wartość dodana” własnej historii – uczenie się na błędach i wyciąganie właściwych wniosków. Praca stanowi próbę pokazania, dlaczego serbskie elity pozostają nieskuteczne w tworzeniu funkcjonalnego systemu społecznego w dominującym kontekście społecznym (w tym racjonalnie pojętego interesu narodowego jako fundamentalnego warunku stabilności społecznej).
EN
Since the beginning of its modern history Serbia has been characterized by political and state instability. The issues regarding determination of a rational national interest, the questions of country's borders and development strategy show that the country has considerable problems to create a social synthesis understood as „positive value” of the country's history – learning from its own mistakes and drawing correct conclusions. The paper is an attempt to present the reasons for which the actions of Serbian elites remain ineffective in creating a functional social system in the dominating social context (including a reasonable national interest as a fundamental condition of social stability).
EN
Military education, as an institutional structural component of independent, sovereign states, is one of the key elements that define the condition, combat capabilities and the basis for the stable and steady development of their military organization. In the article the military education is considered for the first time as an important component of ensuring the national interests and national security of the leading countries of the world. The purpose of this article is definition, systematization and generalization of the experience and trends of development of military education systems in the leading countries of the world in the context of their defence capabilities. To achieve the goal of the article is used the system of general scientific and special methods of theoretical (analysis of scientific literature on an investigated problem, systematization and generalization, content-analysis, systematic approach) and empirical studies (monitoring of the activities of military specialists, use of diagnostic tools – questionnaires, summary of results). The main regularities of military education in leading countries of the world are defined that are mandated by: educational needs of an individual; nation-wide interests, national security and defence interests, state policy in educational sphere; political, ideological and socioeconomic conditions; scientific and technical capabilities of the state; national traditions, national and international experience; needs of the troops; state of military-theoretical and psycho-pedagogical research; condition of moral-psychological, financial-economic, material-technical and information support of the system. The position, principles and general trends of development of military education national systems in the leading countries are revealed. The undertaken study has practical significance for the further reforming of Armed Forces of Ukraine in the context of modern requirements of normative-legal documents on security and defence policy of the state, the policy of rapprochement with NATO. The prospects for further research should be: content, organizational and methodological and material-and-technical training peculiarities of military specialists of different educational levels and chains of management.
PL
O ile poddać analizie sposób układania przez Polskę stosunków z sąsiadami w regionie, nasuwa się wniosek, iż pozostaje on pod presją syndromów, z którymi zdołały sobie poradzić – bądź odrzucić – kraje Europy. Nadal tedy pozostaje znalezienie się (ugruntowanie) w strefie bezpieczeństwa gwarantowanego integracją z Zachodem, ale równocześnie racjonalne i pragmatyczne ułożenie poprawnych (niekonfliktowych) stosunków ze Wschodem – Rosją, Ukrainą, Białorusią, krajami nadbałtyckimi, osobliwie Litwą. Oznacza to zdolność do racjonalnego i realnego pojmowania interesów narodowych, tj. racji stanu w konkretnych warunkach geopolitycznych – konkurencji, uzyskiwania przewagi bądź zawierania sojuszy czy kompromisów, dokonywania długofalowych wyborów.
EN
In analysing the mode in which Poland settled its relations with Russia, the conclusion comes to mind that Poland remains under the spell of the syndromes which were either disposed of, or dealt with by other European nations. The challenge to solidify Poland’s position within the safety zone that is vouched by the West, while establishing pragmatic, rational and conflict free relationships with the East – Russia, Ukraine, Belarus and the Baltic countries, and particularly Latvia, remains. Thus, the ability to comprehend Polish national interests, or raison d’état, is required, taking into account realistic and rational arguments and the limits of the existing geopolitical situation where competition plays a substantial part. Poland should also take a long-term view securing its competitive advantages, entering into alliances and making compromises.
PL
Artykuł analizuje główne teoretyczne podejścia do definiowania konceptu polityki zagranicznej USA we współczesnym świecie. W tekście poruszono zagadnienia głównych tendencji w rozwoju stanowisk USA i Ukrainy w sprawach międzynarodowych i sposobów rozwiązywania problemów we współpracy obu państw.
EN
The article analyzes the main theoretical approaches to the definition of foreign policy concept of the USA at the modern stage. It considers the main tendencies of the development of the USA and Ukraine’s positions on international issues and the ways to solve problems in inter-state collaboration.
Facta Simonidis
|
2009
|
vol. 2
|
issue 1
11-33
EN
Since the Cold War, it was a durable friendship between Turkey and the United States of America. They reached full agreement in most of the international issues. During the Cold War, the most important common interest of Turkey and the US was containment of the USSR. In this context, NATO was the best fi eld of their cooperation. Nowadays in the post – Cold War era we can see the evolution of the relationship between those partners. Turkey and the US have to adopt to a new international reality which is very turbulent and unpredictable. Cooperation between these countries will be much more complicated as during the Cold War.
PL
Od czasów zimnej wojny sojusz USA i Turcji był trwały i zgodny w większości kwestii międzynarodowych. Wtedy to, oba państwa aktywnie angażowały się w powstrzymywanie ZSRR. W nowej erze pozimnowojennej konieczna jest ewolucja stosunków między tymi państwami. Turcja i USA muszą się zaadaptować do nowej rzeczywistości międzynarodowej coraz bardziej turbulentnej i nieobliczalnej. Obecnie i w przyszłości relacje między tymi państwami będą bardziej złożone niż w czasie zimnej wojny. Dzisiaj na wartość strategiczną tego sojuszu w dużym stopniu wpłynęła rozbieżność interesów Turcji i USA podczas wojny w Iraku w 2003 roku. Mimo wzajemnej chęci współpracy ten fakt będzie stanowił mentalną przeszkodę w przyszłym dialogu obu państw.
EN
The aim of the article is to examine the foreign policy approaches and interests of three regional powers – Iran, Russia and Turkey before the Second Karabakh war in 2020. The study argues that dissatisfaction with the results of the conflict, forced these countries to further advance their interests in the region through cooperation and regional influence by soft power rather than waging an unpredictable geopolitical confrontation. The study is based on the methods of foreign policy analysis and comparative analysis of political discourse of the three regional powers in application to the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict using the Great Power Management (GPM) approach of the English School of International Relations. The study puts forward the idea that the predominance of the national interests of Russia, Turkey and Iran, disguised with ideational concepts in the framework of the GPM is fundamentally different from the principles of multilateralism, driven by the European Union and the West within the liberal paradigm of resolving the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict.
EN
In analyzing the mode in which Poland was settling its relations with Russia a deduction comes to mind that Poland remains under the spell of the syndromes which were either disposed of or dealt with by other European nations. Remaining is the challenge to solidify Poland’s position within the safety vault of heaven that is vouched by the West while establishing a pragmatic and rational and conflict free relationships with the East-Russia, Ukraine, Belarus and the Baltic countries, particularly Latvia. Thus, required is the ability to comprehend the Polish national interests, that is the Polish raison d’état, in a realistic and rational manner within the limits of the existing geopolitical situation of the competition, securing sustained competitive advantages, entering into alliances or compromises and making a long-term option.
RU
Если подвергнуть анализу то, каким образом Польша строит свои отношения с соседями в регионе, напрашивается вывод, что их характер определяется давлением синдромов, с которыми смогли справиться – либо отказаться от них – страны Европы. Поэтому ей по-прежнему ничего иного не остается, как находиться в зоне безопасности, гарантированной интеграцией с Западом, но в то же время рационально и прагматично строить правильные (неконфликтные) отношения с Востоком – Россией, Украиной, Белоруссией, странами Балтии, особенно с Литвой. Это означает спо собность к рациональному и реальному пониманию национальных интересов, т. е. государственных интересов в конкретных геополитических условиях – конкуренции, обретения преимуществ или заключения союзов, достижения компромиссов, совершения долгосрочного выбора в различных областях.
EN
The aim of this article is to present a section of Spanish research on the theory of foreign policy of the state against the background of European, American and Latin American arrangements. The publications of Luis V. Pérez Gil and Rafael Calderch Cervery were the basis of the analysis. This article is an introduction to further research. Research problems have been tackled in order to answer the following questions: 1) How do Spanish teachers define foreign policy, and which theorists of international relations do they relate to? 2) What are the phases and goals of foreign policy? 3) How do Spanish scientists define the national interest and which theoretical researchers of international relations do they refer to? The article uses methods of analysing and criticising sources.
PL
Celem artykułu jest przedstawienie wycinka hiszpańskich badań na temat teorii polityki zagranicznej państwa na tle europejskich, amerykańskich i latynoamerykańskich ustaleń. Źródłem analizy były przede wszystkim publikacje Luisa V. Pérez Gila oraz Rafaela Calducha Cervery. Artykuł ten jest wstępem do dalszych badań. Podjęto problemy badawcze zmierzające do odpowiedzi na następujące pytania: 1) Jak hiszpańscy szkolarze definiują politykę zagraniczną i na których badaczy teorii stosunków międzynarodowych się powołują? 2) Jakie fazy i cele polityki zagranicznej wyróżniają? 3) Jak hiszpańscy naukowcy definiują interes narodowy i na których badaczy teorii stosunków międzynarodowych się powołują? Przy pisaniu artykułu wykorzystano metody analizy i krytyki źródeł.
19
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EN
This essay has been focused on the relationship between international law and power. The author starts with doctrine of “classical legal thought” and negative reaction of the followers of “legal realism” to this “classicism”. The “realists” generally view international law as a result of the interests of powerful states. H. Morgenthau was maybe the first who launched a broad attack on classical legal thought, stressing the decisive relationship between power, state behavior and international law. “Realism” became the leading position among U.S scholars in international law and the US foreign policy officials. The element of power and a hegemon’s national interest have got nevertheless very soon increasingly dominant position in the US foreign policy. The “realists” of all “schools” have many times argued, that international law should not constrain pursuit of the U.S. national interest and foreign policy. International law cannot be detached from politics but on the other side international law cannot be replaced by politics or morality. International law is the body of legal norms which governs the relations of states and other subjects of international law. It is not possible to deny the legally binding character of international law which constrains the freedom of actions of states and other subject. There is the duty of every state to fulfil in good faith its obligations under the generally recognized principles and rules of international law. Art. 103 of the UN Charter stipulates that in the event of a conflict between the obligations of members of the UN at least and their obligations under any other international agreements, their obligations under the Charter shall prevail. Claiming that the UN Charter collective security system has failed gives no justification to the “realist” conclusion that the use of force is no more subject to the rule of law and that “national self-interest” prevails. The author is trying to analyse the relationship between the “legality” and “legitimacy” in international law. Recourse to unilateral use force on the basis of legitimacy reason without the UNSC authorization has been in fact the claim that any humanitarian intervention is a legitimate exception to the prohibition of the use of force. This article constitutes also an attempt to reveal the basic difference between the rule and the policy approaches in international law. Author deals also with the extensive interpretation of legality and legitimacy of the use of force and in brief with the politics of international law.
CS
Tento článek se zaměřuje na vztah mezi mezinárodním právem, mocí a silou. Autor článku začíná své pojednání u „klasického právního myšlení“ a negativních reakcí „právního realismu“ vůči tomuto „klasicismu“. „Realisté“ obecně považují mezinárodní právo za výsledek zájmů mocných států. H. Morgenthau byl zřejmě první, kdo podnikl široký útok na klasické právní myšlení zdůrazněním rozhodujícího vztahu mezi mocí (silou), chováním státu a mezinárodním právem. „Realismus“ se stal klíčovým směrem mezi americkými teoretiky mezinárodního práva i v zahraniční politice USA. Prvek síly a hegemonisticky pojatý „národní zájem“ získaly za „studené války“ v zahraniční politice USA skutečně dominantní pozici. „Realisté“ všech škol a zaměření mnohokrát tvrdili, že mezinárodní právo nesmí omezovat „národní zájem“ a zahraniční politiku USA. Mezinárodní práva jistě nelze oddělovat od politiky. Na druhé straně však mezinárodní právo nelze nahrazovat politikou nebo pouhou morálkou. Mezinárodní právo je souborem právních norem, které řídí vztahy mezi státy a jinými subjekty mezinárodního práva. Nelze popírat právně závazný charakter mezinárodního práva, které omezuje volnost jednání státu a jeho ostatních subjektů. Existuje povinnost každého státu plnit v dobré víře své závazky na základě obecně uznaných principů a pravidel mezinárodního práva. Čl. 103 Charty OSN jasně stanoví, že v případě konfliktu mezi závazky členů OSN podle Charty a jejich závazky z jiných mezinárodních dohod mají závazky podle Charty přednost. Tvrzení, že systém kolektivní bezpečnosti OSN selhal, nedává ještě žádné ospravedlnění pro závěr „realistů“, že použití síly již nepodléhá „mezinárodní vládě práva“ a vlastní „národní zájem“ má přednost. Autor se pokouší o stručnou analýzu vztahu mezi „legalitou“ a „legitimitou“ v mezinárodním právu. Jednostranné uchýlení se k použití síly pouze na základě důvodů „legitimity“ bez autorizace OSN je vysoce kontroverzní. Autor článku odmítá tvrzení, že každá humanitární intervence je legitimní výjimkou ze zákazu použití síly. Článek je i pokusem ukázat základní rozdíly mezi legalistickým a politicky orientovaným přístupem v mezinárodním právu. Autor se kriticky zabývá rovněž extenzivním výkladem pojmů legality a legitimity při použití síly a krátce i politikou mezinárodního práva.
EN
The article addresses the problem ignored by mainstream economists - the negative social and economic consequences of the lack of own currency and the ability to conduct a national monetary policy. This issue is particularly important to the discussion about Polish accession to the EU common payment area. Using as a subject of study current European debt crisis the Author shows the Reader that the causes of the problems of southern outskirts of the euro zone does not arise "from living beyond their means", but most of all because of the lack of own currency. Countries of southern Europe, as a result of hasty abandonment of the opportunity to conduct their own monetary policy, lost their own economic competitiveness (ability to influence the unit labour costs) in relation to the dominant German export economy. The countries of southern Europe have become "prisoners of the euro zone", because it is not possible to conduct the same monetary policy for countries with different levels of inflation and competitiveness. Sooner or later, countries with a higher rate of inflation than the ECB's inflation target will lose their competitiveness and become indebted to the dominant economies - exporters of capital. There is no compensation for the loss of competitiveness from the common EU budget. The article draws attention to the social consequences of the existing "independence of the NBP” model and the "prohibition of monetary financing of the budget deficit by the National Bank of Poland”. In the end the Author defines the term "financial sovereignty".
PL
Artykuł dotyka problemu omijanego przez ekonomistów głównego nurtu - negatywnych konsekwencji społecznych i gospodarczych braku własnej waluty oraz możliwości prowadzenia narodowej polityki pieniężnej. Temat ten jest szczególnie ważny wobec rozważań Polski na temat przystąpienia do wspólnego obszaru płatniczego UE. Wykorzystując jako przedmiot badania aktualny europejski kryzys zadłużenia Autor pokazuje Czytelnikowi, że przyczyny problemów południowych peryferii strefy EURO wynikają nie „z życia ponad stan" lecz przede wszystkim z powodu braku własnej waluty. Kraje południa Europy wskutek pochopnej rezygnacji z możliwość prowadzenia własnej polityki pieniężnej utraciły w sposób niezawiniony własną konkurencyjność gospodarczą (możliwość wpływania na jednostkowe koszty pracy) względem dominującej eksportowej gospodarki niemieckiej. Kraje południa Europy stały się „więźniami strefy EURO", gdyż nie jest możliwe prowadzenie tej samej polityki pieniężnej dla krajów o różnym poziomie inflacji i konkurencyjności. Prędzej czy później kraje o wyższej stopie inflacji niż cel inflacyjny EBC utracą swoją konkurencyjność i zostają dłużnikami dominujących gospodarek - eksporterów kapitału. Brak jest rekompensat za utratę konkurencyjności ze wspólnego budżetu UE. W artykule zwraca się uwagę na konsekwencje społeczne istniejącego „modelu niezależności NBP” oraz „zakazu finansowania deficytu budżetowego przez NBP". Na zakończenie Autor definiuje pojęcie „suwerenności finansowej".
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