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1

Philosophy of Sport from the Institutional, Content Related and Methodological Viewpoint

100%

Kosiewicz J.

Physical Culture and Sport. Studies and Research

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2009

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vol. 46

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issue 1

5-38

EN

In this article Author presents the dispute on the philosophy of sport. He points out four standpoints concerning the existence of the philosophy of sport: a) a commonsense one, b) a content related/methodological one, c) a reductionist one, d) a nihilistic one.The first points out that the discussed branch of science exists, that its final stabilization took place in the years 1967-1979. That opinion is proclaimed by Wojciech Lipoński (an English philologist), who is supported by Zbigniew Krawczyk (a sociologist of culture, an outstanding sociologist of sport, he dealt also with philosophical aspects of sport, 1995, 1997a, 1997b), Stanisław Kowalczyk (an outstanding catholic philosopher, he expressed his opinions also on the philosophy and theology of sport 2002, 2007). That viewpoint, according to my exploratory talks, is shared by a majority of members of the British Philosophy of Sport Association, the European Association for the Philosophy of Sport and the International Association for the Philosophy of Sport, mainly because of lack of proper preparation - that is, philosophical education.The discussed standpoint has a commonsense character, since it does not tale into account the real level of contents of the philosophy of sport and relations taking place between it and general philosophy. It emphasizes only the first of the abovementioned requirements (the structural-functional one). Nobody of the abovementioned proponents of the first standpoint is aware of the need of meeting the two others of the abovementioned requirements - the content related one and the methodological one.An exception in that respect is Rev. Stanisław Kowalczyk, who admittedly raises issues connected with those two others requirements, but the contexts of justification he has formulated have - especially in the content related respect - a commonsense character. Nota bene, statements of a similar character on fundamental issues happened even to the greatest philosophers, among others to Hegel. Moreover Kowalczyk considers also (although in a disputable way) methodological issues concerning methodological foundations of the philosophy of sport. Because of the fact that I do not agree with both content related and methodological argumentation of the great Catholic philosophers, I devote more space to a polemic against him - that is, justification of my standpoint - in the subsequent part of the text.The second standpoint is expressed by Jerzy Kosiewicz. It is shared by, among others, Ivo Jirasek, Scott R. Kretchmar, Jim S. Perry, Arno Muller (it refers to arguments comprised in that text in part III and presented also in presence of the abovementioned persons during the conference of the IAPS in Olomouc in 2005). It assumes that the philosophy of sport exists, but solely in the institutional-organisational (structural-functional) sense. However, because of content related and methodological reasons, it is still in an early phase of development and hence we more have to do in that respect with philosophical reflection on sport - that is, in that case, with application of assumptions and issues from the field of general philosophy and specialized philosophies to ideography, explaining, understanding and evaluating phenomena as well as theoretical and practical activity connected with sport - than with the philosophy of sport in the strict sense of the word.The third viewpoint suggests that the philosophy of sport has not come into existence yet. McFee in one part of his text entitled Do we need a philosophy of sport? (in: Are There Philosophical Issues Respect to Sport (Other Than Ethical Ones), 1998, pp. 3-18) undermines the sense of its existence. He wonders if it is needed at all and he proclaims, after a long argument, that it is not. He proclaims, not without a reason, that if in the process of creating the philosophy of sport we have to do solely with application of philosophy for reflection on sport, so, as a matter of fact, the philosophy of sport as such is not needed at all. The general philosophy will suffice as a theoretical foundation for reflection on sport, for explaining and understanding its sense, meaning, essence, cultural and biological background, social and psychological mechanisms, needs, motives, etc.I suppose that working on that assumption we have to do rather with philosophical reflection on sport than with any form of the philosophy of sport. Nevertheless, the precondition of existence of the philosophy of sport in the strict sense of the word is referring to achievements of the whole philosophy. And philosophical reflection on sport is the first step on the road to creation of a fully autonomous and mature philosophy of sport.Hence, I do not share the final McFee's conclusion included in the discussed text and proclaiming that the philosophy of sport as such is not needed, since each newly born philosophical branch goes through the application period, but, sooner or later, it breaks free from that initial content related and methodological dependence. It has also a right for its own academic name since the very beginning.The fourth standpoint has a radical character. It proclaims categorically that any philosophical reflection on sport is unnecessary - similarly as neither the philosophy of railroading, nor the philosophy of transport as such, nor the philosophy of mining or carpentry are needed. It is proclaimed that there are such fields which may do without philosophy and which do not need philosophy for anything. They allegedly include physical activity, activity in the field of physical culture. That view is proclaimed and supported by, among others. Henning Eichberg and Ejgil Jespersen.Author is not a proponent of that viewpoint, because physical culture and sport, among others because of their significance and range of social, cultural, health-related or axiological influences, implicate indubitably the need of cognitive studies of a philosophical character which should be continuously deepened and widened.Defining organizational-institutional, content related and methodological deficiencies characteristic for the philosophy of sport Authors points out to barriers which must be overcome to enable its further development. It is facilitated by defining its identity. Author thinks at the first about institutional-organisational difficulties:1. The philosophy of sport has not appeared in structures of many scientific and didactic institutions closely connected with sport.2. Neither she is present in syllabuses and didactic of many of the abovementioned institutions.3. About 85% of members the international, the British and the European association of philosophy of sport - as well as participants of conferences on the subject and research projects and teams - have no philosophical education.4. Many former chairpersons of scientific associations in Europe and outside had no philosophical education. A majority of them played a remarkable organizational and institutional role connected with promoting and strengthening the status of the philosophy of sport. However, their activity only indirectly and insufficiently facilitated development of that philosophy in the content related and methodological sense.5. The strictly philosophical milieu manifests poor interest in the philosophy of sport. A percentage of persons from that milieu who carry out studies connected with it or express their opinions about it are too low.He thinks also that it is possible to distinguish the following content related and methodological deficiencies characteristic for the philosophy of sport:1. Shortage of original assumptions and issues, which have been worked out solely on the ground of the philosophy of sport and are characteristic only for that discipline.2. The discussed philosophy uses only languages of general philosophy and other specialised philosophies, referring to their terms, notions, categories, branches, circles, schools, currents, periods, ages, assumptions, issues, etc.3. There is no feedback influence on general philosophy and specialised philosophies.4. Literature on the philosophy of sport has introductory (initial) and applicative qualities.5. Because of the abovementioned reasons, the philosophy of sport does not meet the fifth, the sixth and the seventh methodological condition concerning becoming independent from the abovementioned application and working out its own, specific assumptions and issues, as well as feedback influence. That is because such a situation makes it impossible to confirm not only its autonomy, but also its maturity.6. Sports sciences (which, treated in a broader or different way, can be called physical culture sciences) have no common and coherent content related and methodological basis. They are very varied in that respect. It makes impossible coherent sublimation of that science in the form of the philosophy of sport. In that case, the first methodological criterion (according to S. Kamiński's interpretation), concerning its autonomy, is not fulfilled, because the subject of its interest connected with sports sciences has not been defined.7. The fact that the philosophy of sport is not cognitively advanced (that is, there are no significant results of practising it), and that there are no means connected with the discussed activity (that is, a specialised methodology) and facilitating its development, causes that it is neither autonomous, nor mature from the viewpoint of the second methodological criterion according to Kamiński's interpretation.8. A low level of meta-scientific self-definition of the philosophy of sport causes that the third methodological criterion according to Kamiński's interpretation, concerning self-reliance, is not fulfilled.One of reasons of the abovementioned immaturity and lack of autonomy of the philosophy of sport is also lack of necessary research-related competences (the eighth criterion concerning specialized methodology is not fulfilled). It refers, on the one hand, to superficial and commonsense character of knowledge about phenomena and issues concerning sport - including knowledge from the field of sports sciences - and, on the other hand, to improper preparation, education and philosophical competences.

2

Truth in Sport

100%

Michaluk T.

Physical Culture and Sport. Studies and Research

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2009

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vol. 46

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issue 1

50-57

EN

The classical definition of truth, as the correspondence of something we can call facts and our image of them, applies to discussing those sports where a result is established by simple and unequivocal evaluation, based on sensory perceptions. In the most popular athletic contests, we do not perceive who wins, but we know the result of a measurement, which is later interpreted as the victory or taking a further place. The reading of a measuring device only represents the result, which does not mean that it really is the result. We do not know the real result; by reading the digits on the screen, we already read a sign. Subsequently, it can be interpreted as the sign of victory. We assume that by improving our measuring methods we approach the true representation of the results. It would be, however, naive, to claim that this process will lead to the measurement ceasing to represent and starting to be the represented object, unmediated through any signs. Therefore, apart from the classical conception of truth, we can define truth in sport semiotically as representation, and subsequently interpretation, of a sporting event, performed by the referees and spectators. In this definition truth is sanctioned by the referee's decision, not necessarily based on facts.Some professional sports can be compared to science. A scientific experiment must observe strictly defined conditions and take into account factors valid for its course and results. The conditions of a "sporting experiment" are strictly defined and their correctness is guarded by men and machines. In science, the discovery of a falsehood disqualifies a given "scientific event"; in sport a mistake or breaking the rules can become a controversial decision or a refereeing mistake, and usually are not changed or reviewed, turning into the "truth of sport".

3

Achieving Income Justice in Professional Sports: Limitation, Taxation, or Donation

100%

Schweiger G.

Physical Culture and Sport. Studies and Research

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2012

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vol. 56

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issue 1

12-22

EN

This paper is based on the assumption that the high incomes of some professional sports athletes, such as players in professional leagues in the United States and Europe, pose an ethical problem of social justice. I deal with the questions of what should follow from this evaluation and in which ways those incomes should be regulated. I discuss three different options: a) the idea that the incomes of professional athletes should be limited, b) the idea that they should be vastly taxed by the state, and c) the idea that there is a moral obligation for the athletes to spend portions of their incomes on good causes. I will conclude that in today’s circumstances there are good reasons to advocate both option one (limitation) and option two (taxation), but that priority should be given to taxation.

4

Sport: the Treasure of Temperance

88%

Pisk J.

Physical Culture and Sport. Studies and Research

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2011

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vol. 51

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issue 1

53-61

EN

The modern lifestyle, with its emphasis on enjoyment and immoderation, could lead a human being to the point where he is not a master of himself anymore. Inner desires and outer pressures force a man to take those actions that are not in accordance with his rational human nature and that are not good for him. According to the classical philosophical view of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, this clearly shows the inner slavery of modern man. Temperance, moderation or asceticism today seem old fashioned and unnecessary virtues; nevertheless, it is obvious that many problems of modern societies have roots in the absence of these virtues. These problems include a high percentage of obese population, different addictions and other health problems concerning the immoderate life style. It seems that nowadays enjoyment is the highest imperative for the individual and for society as a whole. However, these days it is possible to recognize the revival of these virtues. This paper points out the case of sport where these virtues are still cultivated and highly appreciated. At first this may seem somehow strange, because many times sport is perceived as connected with pleasure, fun and excess, but in reality sport demands much of participants. It could be even said that professional athletes are modern ascetics, and a big part of recreational sport is all but not enjoyment. In conclusion we can assert that virtues acquired in the field of sport can indeed help a human being to live a better life in general.

5

Philosophy of Sport in Poland: Observations

88%

Kosiewicz J.

Physical Culture and Sport. Studies and Research

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2012

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vol. 54

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issue 1

86-102

EN

The presented paper has a polemic and an explanatory nature. It refers to some of the inaccuracies contained in the text authored by Ivo Jirásek and Peter Hopsicker. The aforementioned authors presented the achievements of various prominent philosophers of sport from Slavic countries, including the achievements of some Polish thinkers. My observations are focused mainly on issues related to the birth and development of the philosophy of sport in Poland. I would like to thank Professor Ivo Jirásek and Professor Peter Hopsicker for addressing the topic of Polish philosophy and for their research efforts. I also would like to ask the authors to receive my comments with the good intentions with which I composed them, and hope my comments may enrich their cognitive project.

6

Sport Science: Ontological and Methodological Considerations

88%

Pisk J.

Physical Culture and Sport. Studies and Research

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2014

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vol. 61

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issue 1

5-14

EN

Sport is the research object of variety of sciences. But, what is sport and how to think it? The aim of this article is to give some basic thoughts about the nature of sport and to present, confront and evaluate different concepts of science with their different rival approaches and understanding of sport. In general three major groups of sciences can be differentiated: natural sciences and social sciences which share common quantitative (empirical and mathematical based) methodology of research, and human sciences or humanities with their method of reflection (the analysis of concepts and rational argumentation) which go beyond empirically measurable things. Because of different scientific approaches, different understanding and concepts of sport arise which try to prevail over in society. Our comprehension of sport is therefore greatly influenced by pre-accepted methodological position. If sport is equated with physical human body movement, then natural science with its empirical methodology seems to be adequate way for cognition of sport. For social scientists sport has important role in society, therefore it cannot be reduced to mere “body movement”. But humanists would say that sport is more than “body in movement” with influence in society: sport is a powerful idea or concept which needs a special unempirical method of research. Therefore human sciences with their rational reflection of human (personal) experiences can reveal us additional, but yet familiar dimensions of sport. Although their method is not empirically objective, they can deal with important life matters, moreover, their “a priori” qualitative approach to sport can give meaning and make sense out of sport, reflect about the aim and purpose of sport as well as make some ethical considerations about sport. In the article some examples are given and some problems regarding reduction of sport science to just one scientific approach are considered.

7

The Sport for All Ideal: A Tool for Enhancing Human Capabilities and Dignity

88%

Javier F.

Physical Culture and Sport. Studies and Research

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2014

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vol. 63

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issue 1

20-28

EN

Sport, as a child of modernity, is intertwined with typically modern elements, such as the search for universality, competition, and the fascination for measurement. As modernity is essentially defined, in legal and moral terms, as a search for universally grounded moral principles or basic human rights, modern sports are widely seen as a means to promote typically modern values such as dignity. This paper conceives of the term "dignity" in light of the capabilities approach upheld by Martha Nussbaum and Amartya Sen. According to these authors, dignity is conferred according to certain human basic capabilities that we all are entitled to. This is the reason why this article explores how sport can be a tool for enhancing and exercising such human capabilities. In so doing, I shall argue that the Sport for All ideal provides us with a normative proposal to achieve such a task since it embodies the basic spirit and ethical goals of our modern society. Moreover, connecting the promotion of dignity to the capabilities approach will allow us not just to use sport as a means for development, but also to provide us with specific criteria to evaluate the impact of sport in the wider society regarding the promotion of people‘s dignity.

8

Considerations on Relation between Philosophy of Sport and Common Sense Thinking

75%

Kosiewicz J.

Physical Culture and Sport. Studies and Research

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2016

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vol. 70

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issue 1

79-87

EN

The purpose of this presentation is not to elaborate on the meaning of the common sense thinking and common sense in relation to cognition sensu stricto that is, in relation to scientific cognition. This topic has already been sufficiently covered in a concise and synchronous way. The focus of this presentation is mainly on selective manifestations of common sense thinking and their penetration of the philosophy in general, as well as the philosophy of sport in particular.

9

Running and the Paradox of Suffering

75%

Ellis R. D.

Eidos. A Journal for Philosophy of Culture

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2021

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vol. 5

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issue 4

8-20

EN

What motivates the voluntary suffering of training for a long-distance run – or any other difficult athletic skill? Long-term pleasure cannot adequately explain this seemingly masochistic activity. On the contrary, I argue that pleasure, or “reinforcement,” is not the only ultimate motivator of behavior. Each of the emotion systems defines its own intrinsic values, including an innate “play” system and an innate “exploratory drive” that is included in what neuropsychologist Jaak Panksepp calls the “SEEKING system” of the emotional brain. Panksepp’s description of the conscious dimension of SEEKING is remarkably similar to Otto Rank’s descriptions of his “love of life” dimension of motivation, which actually conflicts with the pleasure principle. The desire for pleasure is a desire to reduce consummatory drives, which means reducing the energy level of our bodily systems. Complete reduction would be death. If there were no competing motivation in the other direction, there would be nothing to keep us alive. The SEEKING system is what does that. It motivates a higher energy level. In the case of athletic training, we do not have to “force ourselves” to this higher energy level. The SEEKING system is an innate natural drive. If we were to deliberately try to just sit on a couch indefinitely, at some point we would fail.

10

Media Scandals as Fake News is Dangerous for the National Security

71%

Angelova-Igova B.

Przegląd Politologiczny

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2019

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issue 4

31-37

PL

W Requiem dla Mediów Jean Baudrillard opisał wojnę domową w rumuńskiej Timisoarze, która odbyła się w 1989 roku. Odkrył on, iż wojna ta została w znacznej mierze zainicjowana przez media masowe. Obecnie media mają możliwość dekontekstualizacji wydarzeń oraz ich obiektywizacji przez umieszczenie w innym kontekście obok innych zdekontekstualizowanych wydarzeń. Stanowi to istotne zagrożenie i może prowadzić do istotnych problemów z punktu widzenia bezpieczeństwa narodowego. Media mogą prowokować turbulencje społeczne i „prawdziwe” przestępstwa. Moim celem w tym artykule jest opisanie tego problemu i ukazanie możliwych rozwiązań. Stosując przyjętą metodologię, badam studia przypadków i analizuję wydarzenia historyczne.

EN

In a Requiem for Media Jean Baudrillard described the civil war in Timisoara, Romania, in 1989. He discovered that the war was to a large extent instigated by the mass media. Nowadays, the media have the possibility to decontextualize events and objectify them by placing them in a different context, alongside other decontextualized events. This could be very dangerous and lead to serious national security problems. Media could provoke social turbulence and “real” crimes. My aim in this paper is to describe this problem and show possible solutions. While following the methodology adopted, I examine case studies and analyze specific historical events.

11

Olympic Opera

63%

Pawłucki A.

Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology

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2023

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vol. 23

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issue 4

56-67

EN

Problem. In this essay I take up the issue of sport and art. The craftsmanship in combat sports determines that warrior creates a work of art (Martial Arts). Similarly, every sport can be considered as the art of movement. But this is not the understanding of the relationship between sport and art. The problem is whether the Olympic Game itself (in the singular) can be recognized as a separate art in analogy to opera seria. The Olympic Game is art because it is a theatricalization of the drama of the life of a man of peace. Method. In recognizing the Olympic Game as a work of art, the semiological and axiological criterion of symbolic culture was used. The Olympic Games of the naive phase – the utopian philosophy of Olympism – were compared to the realistic-objective phase – theoretically probable. Results. It has been shown that the Olympic Game is a ritual stadium event that symbolizes the idea of a cyclical rebirth of life. The sports agonism itself, which ends in reconciliation in friendship, symbolizes Olympic peace. For these two reasons, the stadium Olympics can be considered a work of art theatrum olympicum. The difference between the truce as a state of warlessness in ancient Olympia and the Olympic peace was explained. Conclusion. There is no axionormative continuity in the making of the art of the Olympic Games. The Olympic Game is a work of art telling about the misfortune of war, which is overcome not by the state of no-war (ekecheiria), but by a completely real conversion to the path of a decent life. The law of friendship is not confirmed when haters and supporters of war crimes infiltrate the stadium. The real destroyer of sports law, due to his moral disability, cannot have access to the sign reality of the Olympic Games.

PL

Problem. W tym eseju autor podejmuje zagdnienie sportu i sztuki. Kunszt wykonawczy w sporcie walki przesądza, że działający wojownik tworzy dzieło sztuki (Martial Arts). Analogicznie każdy sport może być rozpatrywany jako sztuka ruchu. Ale nie o takie rozumienie związku sportu ze sztuką tu chodzi. Problem dotyczy tego, czy samo igrzysko olimpijskie (w liczbie pojedyńczej) może być ujmowane jako dziedzina sztuki odrębnej, analogiczna do opera seria. Igrzysko olimpijskie jest sztuką dlatego, że jest teatralizacją dramatu życia człowieka pokoju. Metoda. W rozpoznawaniu igrzyska olimpijskiego jako dzieła i dziedziny sztuki posłużono się kryterium semiologicznym i aksjologicznym kultury symbolicznej. Porównano igrzyska olimpijskie fazy naiwnej - utopijnej filozofii olimpizmu do fazy realistyczno-obiektywnej -teoretycznie uprawdopodobnionej. Wyniki. Wykazano, że igrzysko olimpijskie jest rytualnym wydarzenie stadionowym, które symbolizuje ideę odradzającego się cyklicznie życia. Sama agonistyka sportowa, która kończy się pojednaniem w przyjaźni, symbolizuje pokój olimpijski. Z tych dwóch powodów można uznać stadionowe igrzysko za dzieło sztuki theatrum olympicum. Wyjaśniono różnicę między rozejmem jako stanem bezwojnia w starożytnej Olimpii a pokojem olimpijskim. Pokój neoolimpijski, to nie bezwojnie, a duch przyjaźni, nawiedzający społeczność stadionu po zawodach. Wnioski. Nie istnieje żadna ciągłość aksjonormatywna w tworzeniu sztuki igrzyska olimpijskiego. Igrzysko olimpijskie jest dziełem sztuki opowiadającym o wojennym nieszczęściu, które zostaje przezwyciężone nie stanem bezwojnia ekecheiria, ale całkiem realnym nawróceniem się na drogę godziwego życia. Zawody sportowe tworzą, według libretta filozofa olimpizmu, metaforę społeczeństwa sprawiedliwości społecznej. Prawo przyjaźni nie potwierdza się, kiedy do stadionu przenikają nienawistnicy i zwolennicy wojennych przestępstw. Realny niszczyciel prawa sportowego z powodu ułomności moralnej, nie może mieć dostępu do znakowej rzeczywistości igrzyska olimpijskiego.

12

The Physicality in Philosophy – Contribution to Sport Philosophy

63%

Gojkovic G., Nesic M., Peric D.

Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology

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2018

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vol. 18

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issue 4

5-10

EN

Background. Attitudes of Church teaching, essentially, are not contrary to the efforts of man to strive for a healthy and fruitful life (in every aspect), where sport takes an important place in the context of his health – like physical health is not complete without “a healthy soul” and “a healthy mind”. And right there, in the work of man’s efforts to be “completely healthy”, faith (religion, beliefs, commitment etc.) plays a special role in the so-calle “Gymnastics of the soul”. As knowledge and learning, intellectual development has a duty to uphold the “Gymnastics of the mind”. Method. A broad discourse analysis is used, including literature. This study uses a theoretical perspective based on philosophy, the philosophy of sport and theological aspects of human anthropology. Results. The aim of this work is contained in the philosophical- critical analysis of the basic correlative connection between authentic and confirmed sports values compared to the quintessential items of Christian ontology, anthropology, and philosophy. Text explication is primarily aimed at identifying the value aspect of the phenomenon in kinesiology in the context of Orthodox ontology. Conclusion. That is a brief introduction to the philosophical- theological determinants of common being essential starting point and settings that rely displayed Kinesiology phenomena as complementary factors of human beings (spirit, soul and body). Also, as a contribution to further discussion in the field of philosophy of sport.

PL

Tło. Postawy kościelnego nauczania zasadniczo nie są sprzeczne z wysiłkiem człowieka, który dąży do zdrowego i owocnego życia (pod każdym względem), gdzie sport zajmuje ważne miejsce w kontekście jego zdrowia – tak jak zdrowie fizyczne nie jest kompletne bez „zdrowej duszy” i „zdrowego umysłu”. I właśnie tam, w trakcie wysiłków człowieka, aby być „całkowicie zdrowym”, wiara (religia, przekonania, zobowiązania itd.) odgrywają szczególną rolę w tak zwanej „Gimnastyce duszy”. Jako, że wiedza, uczenie się, rozwój intelektualny mają obowiązek podtrzymywać „Gimnastykę umysłu”. Metoda. Zastosowano szeroką analizę dyskursu m.in. obejmującą literaturę. W badaniu wykorzystano teoretyczną perspektywę opartą na filozofii, filozofii sportu i teologicznych aspektach antropologii humanistycznej. Wyniki. Celem niniejszej pracy jest analiza filozoficzno-krytyczna podstawowego związku korelacyjnego między autentycznymi i potwierdzonymi wartościami sportowymi w porównaniu do kwintesencjalnych elementów chrześcijańskiej ontologii i antropologii lub filozofii. Tekst ma na celu przede wszystkim identyfikację aspektu wartościowego zjawiska w kinezjologii w kontekście ontologii ortodoksyjnej. Wniosek. Jest to krótkie wprowadzenie do filozoficzno- teologicznych uwarunkowań wspólnego bytu, zasadniczego punktu wyjścia i regulacji, które opierają się na zjawiskach kinezjologii, jako elementach uzupełniających istotę ludzką (duch, dusza i ciało). Jest to również przyczynek do dalszej dyskusji w dziedzinie filozofii sportu.

13

Moral Aspects of Some Combat Sports

63%

Meller J.

Studia Ecologiae et Bioethicae

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2020

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vol. 18

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issue 3

47-57

RU

Nowadays, sport is very popular as a way of spending free time, taking care of one’s health and physical condition, as well as being an entertainment worth watching; sport is also judged positively, when it comes to moral aspects. However, there are disciplines that may cause doubts, because of the possible risk for the contestants (e.g. extreme sports), especially combat sports. The purpose of this article is to present an ethical analysis of full-contact combat disciplines. Their history shows a process of gradual brutalisation, in antiquity from battles during the Greek Olympics, to competitions in Roman arenas; in the modern age from regulations introduced in the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, to formation or restoration of combat, where almost no rules exist. Rules that apply in modern combat sports, lead to aggressive behaviour towards rivals, and give an advantage to the person who, not only strikes more technically correct blows or uses grips, but also reduces the opponent’s ability to fight further. It leads to serious injuries whose consequences remain until the end of a contestant’s life and make him a disabled person as time passes. Aggression that seriously harms a contestant, makes it impossible to morally excuse those sports.

PL

We współczesnym świecie sport cieszy się popularnością jako forma spędzania wolnego czasu, dbania o zdrowie i kondycję oraz widowisko będące godziwą rozrywką; jest też oceniany pozytywnie pod względem moralnym. Pewne wątpliwości budzą jednak dyscypliny niosące większe ryzyko dla uczestników zawodów (sporty ekstremalne), zwłaszcza zaś sporty walki. Celem artykułu jest etyczna analiza dyscyplin walki pełnokontaktowej. Ich historia pokazuje proces stopniowej brutalizacji, w starożytności od walki podczas greckich igrzysk po zmagania na rzymskich arenach; w nowożytności od regulacji wprowadzanych w XIX i na początku XX w. po powstawanie lub przywracanie walk, w których reguł niemal nie ma. Zasady, które obowiązują we współczesnych sportach walki kierują do agresywnego zachowania wobec rywala i dają przewagę temu, który nie tylko zadaje więcej technicznie poprawnych ciosów czy stosuje chwytów, ale przez to realnie zmniejsza zdolność przeciwnika do dalszej walki. Prowadzi to do poważnych kontuzji, których skutki trwają do końca życia zawodnika czyniąc go z postępem czasu osobą niepełnosprawną. Agresja czyniąca poważną szkodę zawodnikowi sprawia, że sportów tych nie można moralnie usprawiedliwić.

14

Antropologiczne podstawy sportu

51%

Kowalczyk S.

Roczniki Nauk Społecznych

|

2003

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vol. 31

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issue 1

139-147

EN

Sport plays at present an essential role in social life, and it is genetically conditioned by human psycho-physical needs. It is a multidimensional phenomenon. In its anthropological-ontological aspect, sport is 1) a rest after work, 2) a departure from everyday life and a quasi-festive experience, 3) an active play, 4) a game based on fixed rules and manifesting in a symbolical manner the changeability of human fortunes, 5) competition for victory (but not a brutal aggression), 6) a fascinating para-theatrical show, 7) a form of human auto-creation. Sportive activity may play the following anthropological functions in individual and social life: ludic, hedonistic, hygienic and health-promoting, recreational, competitive, theatrical, aesthetic, socio-integrating, educational, ethic-formative, military, and adaptive for a job.

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