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EN
The effect of education on incomes may reflect the rise of a meritocracy in the patterns of social stratification. Using survey data based on national samples, I analyze the dynamics of this relationship in Poland in 1988–2013 across educational levels controlling for social origin and demographic variables. The results show that the rise of a meritocracy began in the 1980s and continued until 2005, as indicated by an increase in returns to university education. In 2005–2013, the wage premium for higher education persisted despite the economic crisis, the growth of non-standard forms of work, and turmoil of varying kinds in the market economy. At the same time, social origin significantly affects the distribution of incomes, although it occurs indirectly via cultural capital and social connections.
EN
This paper presents findings on the changes in social stratification in Poland, with particular attention given to mobility and marital choices. The author begins with an overview of the concept of social mobility, i.e. shifting of individuals or other categories in social space, including its definitions, indicators, patterns and mechanisms. Next, based on a set of empirical data, the author discusses the patterns of mobility and martial choices in the aftermath of 1989 transition in Poland. Special attention is given to the analysis of the openness of Polish society, opportunities for intergenerational mobility and its consequences.
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EN
This paper aims to answer two questions concerning inequalities in tertiary education. First question concerns the effect of social origin on choice of field of study and the second question concerns the effect of gender. Existing research has demonstrated a significant relation between social background and the field of study. Individuals with more educated parents are more likely to study at prestigious faculties, such as law or medicine. Women are more willing than men to choose humanities and social studies whereas men more often choose technical studies. Will these patterns continue in the face of the rapid increase in number of students which began in Poland in the 1990s? A survey conducted in three state higher-education establishments in Białystok in 2008 shows that students’ choices continue to be affected both by social background and gender. We also found a significant relationship between the field of study and general risk-proneness. These results are explained in terms of three different theories: cultural capital, critical theory, and rational choice.
EN
The problem of estimating a proportion of objects with particular attribute in a finite population is considered. This paper shows an example of the application of estimation fraction using new proposed sample allocation in a population divided into two strata. Variance of estimator of the proportion which uses proposed sample allocation is compared to variance of the standard one. In the paper an application of sample allocation described in Sieradzki & Zieliński [2017] is presented."
EN
The main focus of the paper is that caste system has always been resilient and dynamic due to its inner inconsistencies and contradictions on the one hand, and due to its interpenetration into economy, polity and culture on the other. The aim of this paper is to understand continuity and change in the caste system. Caste has engaged people, hence it has acquired a meta-legal approval. Caste has never been a simple ritual hierarchy because it has encompassed the entire matrix of socio-economic and political relations. It has been argued that there is a need to reconceptualize caste. Caste is no more simply a system of idea and values. More important is to see actual behaviour of the people vis-à-vis the role of caste as a system. Caste has become a matter of interpretation rather than substantialization. It refers to a purposive rationality. Its discrete use provides a description of the problems of Indian society, polity and economy. However, besides caste, there are new status groups, varied forms of social mobility, and structural processes of change and dominance. In such a situation, “family” and “individual” are emerging as agencies of reproduction of inequality/equality. Caste is becoming more of a state of mind of an individual. Contemporary changes have reshaped caste. The policy of reservations based on caste has kept it alive and vibrant. Protests against caste-based reservations have also contributed to the continuity of caste. Caste may be elusive for some who have distanced from their social and cultural roots, but for others, who continue to be there in villages and towns, caste is enduring, and it is there in practice in one way or other. At times, caste-based outbursts surface, though in everyday life, caste is not so visible as a means of social control.
PL
Among the phenomena that characterize modern society it is possible to note the appearance of complex political, occupational, and sectorial systems of status and the weakening of the ‘class’ factor in its ideological meaning. The main result of this development was the steadily increasing conflictbetween, on the one hand, the trends of economic development and the new centers of power and, on the other hand, the mobility of new groups. All the groups competed among themselves over the additions of income, accessibility to economic resources, and positions of influencein the government system as well as over the creation of autonomous frameworks. An important part in these sectorial formations is related to the positioning of education in the entire stratifiedsystem. The statement that the extension of education has not resulted in the reduction of social gaps in the professional field,especially between employees, is correct, yet conversely it did drive a process of change in the evaluation of different subjects and a change in the perception of education as a necessary state of specialization. This aspect constitutes an important factor in the processing of the stratifiedmap and in the formation of the class awareness. The education systems, which are the main organizations to inculcate education, can determine who is qualifiedand who is not qualifiedto filldifferent employment roles; they have become the main device for the achievement of social and economic status.
EN
This article concerns „gaokao” Chinese exams. I show how the „high stakes” tests (the essence of these exams) create the winners and losers in the battle for stratification success. They set up, as a one-time „selection act”, the trajectory of a career and the whole future life of young Chinese. At the same time, they are an example of the entanglement of the testing process in politics and of the enormous (and overwhelming) social pressure on young people.
EN
In the article author discusses the relationships between education and social stratification. The theories of meritocracy and credentalism are analyzed and a special attention is paid to the opposition between their interpretations of the equality/inequality dilemma. Then the R. Turner’s concepts of social mobility and E. Hopper’s concepts of social creation of aspiration are presented. In the second part of the article the phenomenon of overeducation and diploma in ation is considered as well as a case of higher education in Japan as a factor of social stratification in this country.
PL
Konceptualną ramą badań nad ruchliwością jest teoria modernizacji. Stwierdza się w niej, że wzrost otwartości jest dominującą tendencją, która wynika z postępującej liberalizacji i rozwoju gospodarki rynkowej. Wbrew tym oczekiwaniom bariery ruchliwości okazują się na ogół stabilne. Ustalenia te dotyczyły głównie zachodnich demokracji. Nasza analiza jest kontynuacją tego podejścia w odniesieniu do Polski. Opierając się na danych z lat 1982–2016 wskazujemy, że po pierwsze, dokonuje się systematyczne obniżenie wpływu wykształcenia na pozycję zawodową, co przeciwdziała zwiększaniu się ruchliwości międzypokoleniowej. Po drugie, tendencja ta nie obniżyła jednak tzw. względnych szans ruchliwości, chociaż mogło to być bardziej związane z przekształceniami struktury zawodowej niż ze wzrostem otwartości barier społecznych. Po trzecie, za stabilnym charakterem wzorów ruchliwości przemawia utrzymywanie się nierówności edukacyjnych. Po czwarte, okazuje się, że w odróżnieniu od badań w innych krajach, w przypadku Polski, wyższe wykształcenie nie osłabia, ale raczej wzmacnia znaczenie dziedziczenia pozycji rodziców.
EN
This paper deals with changes in the “openness” of Polish society over a 35-year period, focusing primarily on relative mobility, with some attention to changes in absolute mobility. We disentangle intergenerational occupational association into four interrelated parts: (i) relative mobility defined by the effect of social origin on destination, (ii) the relationship between social origin and education, (iii) the net effect of education on destination, and (iv) the compositional effect of education reflected in the rising share of more educated categories in the social structure. We show that changes in social fluidity were neither systematic nor easily interpretable. While our results reveal a consistently declining association between education and occupational position, unidirectional change could not be identified in the social origin-education link and in relative mobility in terms of the association between origin and destination. The origin-destination association generally increased at higher (rather than lower) educational levels.
PL
Głównym celem artykułu jest analiza zmian w dostępie do społecznie cenionych dóbr (zmian postrzeganych subiektywnie przez respondentów), takich jak zamożność, wpływy i poważanie, a także analiza wpływu tych zmian na decyzje o głosowaniu. Stawiamy następujące pytania badawcze: czy w ciągu czterech lat urzędowania PiS dokonało redystrybucji bogactwa, władzy i prestiżu w polskim społeczeństwie? Czy ci, do których ta oferta była przede wszystkim skierowana (czyli osoby nieuprzywilejowane w dostępie do wyżej wymienionych dóbr), uważają, że ich sytuacja w tym zakresie poprawiła się? Dane PGSW pozwalają zidentyfikować statystycznie istotną różnicę w ocenie ostatnich czterech lat (pod względem dostępu do społecznie cenionych dóbr) między elektoratem PiS a innymi grupami w polskim społeczeństwie. Stwierdzamy, że zmienna ta wywiera znaczący wpływ na głosowanie, nawet gdy wiele innych istotnych determinant zachowań wyborczych w Polsce jest kontrolowanych. Wyniki tych analiz stanowią wkład w piśmiennictwo dotyczące demokracji, zachowań wyborczych, populizmu, a przede wszystkim populistów u władzy.
EN
This paper’s main objective is to analyse the changes in the access to socially valued goods, such as wealth, influence and prestige, as well as their impact on voting. We pose the following research questions: during the last four years has Law and Justice party (PiS) redistributed wealth, power, and prestige in Polish society? Do those to whom its offer was primarily addressed (i.e., people who are not privileged in accessing the above-mentioned goods) believe that their situation in this respect has improved? Polish National Election Study (PGSW) data identify a statistically significant difference in assessing the last four years (in terms of access to socially valued goods) between the PiS electorate and other groups. We find that this variable has a significant impact on voting, even when many other important determinants of Poland’s electoral behaviour are controlled. The results of these analyses contribute to the literature on democracy, electoral behaviour, populism, and, above all, populists in power.
EN
Rising trends in economic inequality are well-established across many affluent nations. However, researchers have accrued considerably less knowledge regarding the economic attitudes and preferences of individuals living within the context of increasing inequality, especially in developing or transition countries. To gain leverage on this topic, we utilize data from Polish Panel Survey (POLPAN) from 1988–2003 to examine change over time in respondents’ preferred levels of income inequality. Results show that Poles tend to accept higher levels of income inequality over time. This effect increases with time, even after controlling for respondents’ meritocratic beliefs and attitudes toward state intervention. In addition, this rise in preferred income inequality changes in accordance with actual and perceived changes in the earnings distribution. After describing the patters of variation in acceptance of income inequality between different social groups, we discuss the implications of individuals’ evolving benchmarks for preferred levels of inequality.
EN
By reference to a multi-caste and tribal village in southern Rajasthan the paper examines the degree to which caste and tribal membership impacts on different aspects of migration, e.g. commencement, form, destination, duration, and types of work undertaken. Using a livelihoods approach, supplemented by other perspectives and concentrating on four migration streams (three domestic, one international), data collected over a period of nearly thirty-five years indicates that patterns of migration are far from random. It is argued that the use of official stratification categories in migration surveys can obscure important differences within caste groupings. Short-term circular migration, underestimated in national surveys, is shown to be substantial, especially for the tribal migrants in the village. While position in the social structure differentially affects aspects of migration across the village hierarchy, examples are given of individual migrant agency overcoming structural constraints.
EN
The paper aims to answer two questions concerning inequalities at the tertiary level of education. Firstly, the impact of social background on the choices of fields studies, and, secondly, the gender-driven selection of fields of study. Research conducted to date has shown a visible relationship between one’s social background and the selection of academic disciplines studied. Individuals who have better-educated parents are more likely to study prestigious fields such as law or medicine. It has also been claimed that women are more likely to choose studies in humanities and social Sciences whereas men favour technical studies. Will these trends continue to exist given the rapid increase in the number of tertiary-level students in Poland sińce 1990s? The results of a survey conducted in three public universities in Białystok in 2008 have shown that students’ choices are driven by both their social background and gender. Also, a relationship has been identified between the choices of fields of study and the overall propensity to take risks. The author interprets the results of the survey building on the theory of cultural Capital, theory of monopolisation and rational choice.
PL
Celem artykułu jest próba odpowiedzi na dwa pytania dotyczące nierówności na wyższym szczeblu edukacji. Pierwsze dotyczy wpływu pochodzenia społecznego na wybór kierunku studiów, drugie - selekcji między kierunkami ze względu na płeć. Dotychczasowe badania wykazały, że istnieje wyraźny związek między pochodzeniem społecznym a wyborem kierunku studiów. Osoby mające lepiej wykształconych rodziców częściej studiują na kierunkach prestiżowych, takich jak prawo czy medycyna. Wskazuje się również, że kobiety chętniej wybierają kierunki humanistyczne i społeczne, a mężczyźni kierunki techniczne. Czy w sytuacji szybkiego wzrostu liczby studentów, obserwowanego w Polsce od lat dziewięćdziesiątych XX w., te prawidłowości będą się utrzymywały? Wyniki sondażu przeprowadzonego na trzech państwowych uczelniach w Białymstoku w 2008 r. pokazują, że na wybory studentów nadal wpływają zarówno pochodzenie społeczne, jak i płeć. Zaobserwowano również związek między wyborem kierunku studiów a generalną skłonnością do podejmowania ryzyka. Autorka interpretuje wyniki tych badań w kategoriach teorii konfliktowej (monopolizacji), teorii kapitału kulturowego i teorii racjonalnego wyboru.
EN
The article is devoted to the discussion of socialization processes in the South African apartheid sysem of education (1948-1994). The socialization function of education is considered in-depth, with special attention paid to the racial inequality and discrimination in South African society. The article includes the consideration of school indoctrination and different aims of education and curricula in education subsystems for different racial groups in an Apartheid society.
EN
The paper responds to the issue of stratification of the Slovak language in reference to the idea of Ján Bosák on "over stratification" (or hyper stratification) of the Slovak language. The text attempts to provide a topography of the Slovak virtual language space according to the Map of the Slovak Internet (2009). The map shows that current stratification patterns including, without limitation, break-down of the language along the vertical axis (standard, sub-standard, literary language) cannot be used on the plane of the virtual language as this brings about new and specific social, topical and communication-related structures of the space of the Slovak language (linguotope). Stratification of the language into linguistic planes, stylistic strata etc. is replaced with zoning along discursive fields, user zones, institutional areas, interest groups etc. that may be deemed non-homogenous spatial structures. The basic zoning unit is the web address, while the organizing principle is the communication self-regulation of users (citizens of the web, i.e. webizens, netizens) breaking down the Slovak virtual space in eight baselines. The paper deals in more detail with two of the baselines, namely the "academic soil" and "discussion line".
EN
The article discusses the significance of social capital in Poland during the system transformation from the point of view of stratification. In the first part the theoretical and methodological issues are explored, in particular the neocapital perspective represented mainly by Nan Lin, as well as the problem of operationalizing the concept of social capital. Further, the results of analyses based on two waves of research on the lives of “transformation generation”, meaning the 18-year-olds of 1989, are presented. The differentiation of this cohort in terms of number of social contacts possessed by its members is significant, which from the neocapital perspective makes it one of significant factors of inequality. Moreover, the results of analyses give grounds to the conclusion that social networks play an important role in professional careers and in psychological functioning of individuals. One basic objection against the stratification significance of social capital is the fact that its “etiology” is better accounted for by the “repeated path” hypothesis than by simple inheriting.
PL
Artykuł dotyczy stratyfikacyjnego znaczenia kapitału społecznego w Polsce w czasie transformacji systemowej. W pierwszej części omówione zostały kwestie teoretyczne i metodologiczne, w szczególności perspektywa neokapitałowa reprezentowana przez Nana Lina, jak również zagadnienie operacjonalizacji pojęcia kapitał społeczny. W dalszej części przedstawione są wyniki analiz przeprowadzonych na podstawie dwóch fal badania nad losami „pokolenia transformacji”, czyli osiemnastolatków z roku 1989. Istniejące w tej kohorcie zróżnicowanie pod względem bogactwa posiadanych kontaktów społecznych jest dość znaczące, co w perspektywie neokapitałowej czyniłoby je jednym z istotnych wymiarów nierówności. Co więcej, rezultaty analiz dają przesłanki do twierdzenia o daleko idącej roli sieci społecznych dla przebiegu karier zawodowych, jak również dla psychologicznego funkcjonowania jednostek. Podstawowym zastrzeżeniem, dotyczącym stratyfikacyjnego znaczenia kapitału społecznego jest fakt, że jego „etiologię” lepiej tłumaczy hipoteza „powtórzonej ścieżki” niż prostego dziedziczenia.
PL
Kontrola na współczesnych przejściach granicznych jest coraz bardziej zautomatyzowana, a tym samym sprawniejsza. Polega na weryfikowaniu danych obecnych w systemach informacyjnych i pozwalających na zakwalifikowanie podróżującej osoby do grupy ludzi otrzymujących prawo wjazdu lub jego zakaz. Dla państw wysoko rozwiniętych są instrumentem zwiększania bezpieczeństwa swojego terytorium i obywateli oraz ich mobilności. Z punktu widzenia imigrantów napływających z obszarów ekonomicznie zapóźnionych czy politycznie niestabilnych wykorzystywanie elektronicznych baz danych do ich weryfikowania, poprzedzone koniecznością rejestracji przybyszów, a w przypadku jej braku – koniecznością pozostawienia przez nich swoich danych biometrycznych, staje się dużą barierą lub utrudnieniem. Autorka przedstawia zmianę istoty funkcjonowania współczesnej granicy państwa w wyniku digitalizacji danych alfanumerycznych i biometrycznych osób przemieszczających się przez nią oraz skutki tego zjawiska dla społeczeństw w wymiarze międzynarodowym.
EN
The contemporary border crossing is said to have become progressively more automated and faster. Automated devices and surveillance systems in border control generally are to enhance security of the state. However, this perception of innovations in border control represents more of a developed countries’ perspective than a universal rule. An acceleration of technological development maintains or deepens inequalities between countries, regions, societies or generations and the change (progress) does not occur worldwide and does not apply to all societies. This paper presents different systems of border control using new technologies and their consequences in social and human dimension. A transition of state’s border from a physical line to territorially dispersed points, linked with international information and data sharing, is analysed. The impact of the automated border control of travellers on interactions between developed and less or developing countries is on the main interests of the author in this paper.
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Stratification Approach to Research Border Economy

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EN
Stratification of the border economy has important scientific value. It is the question of division of the border economy into striations. The stratification of potential and resources of the border region is used in the article. Eight levels of striations are identified: the natural and economic conditions of the border region; the integrity of reproduction base of the border region; the level of development and territorially-oriented branch organization of productive forces; the degree of completeness of production and power cycles; the production and economic specialization of the border region; the level of infrastructure provisions in the border region; the trade and commercial potential of the border region and development of new management forms in the border region. The indicators and a set of possible methods of the assessment of each of the eight levels of striations are suggested by means of the econometric instruments.
EN
In the first part of the article, relationships between social policy and higher education policy are analysed with reference to the relevant literature. Next, the concepts of decommodification and stratification are conceptualized and operationalized for the purpose of cross-national comparative analysis. Presenting Poland in the context of other OECD countries allows to assess to what extent Polish higher education policy realizes functions of social policy.
PL
Na podstawie literatury przedmiotu w artykule zostały poddane analizie związki pomiędzy polityką społeczną a polityką w obszarze szkolnictwa wyższego. Zaprezentowano sposób konceptualizacji i operacjonalizacji porównawczego ujęcia tych związków z wykorzystaniem pojęć dekomodyfikacji i stratyfikacji. Umiejscowienie Polski na tle innych krajów OECD pozwoliło ocenić, w jakim stopniu polityka szkolnictwa wyższego w Polsce realizuje funkcje polityki społecznej.
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