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EN
Origen attempts to interpret the biblical texts about the creation. The crucial words for him are those saying that God created man in His own image. The creation of man in God's own image guarantees him involvement in God. A rational being, even in all contingency of its being, regardless of its limitations (particularly resulting from sin) is allowed to divinity and can develop in it by reason of Jesus Christ. Rational beings may become gods, of whom Psalm 82 says (Ps 82, 6), and whose deifying will only be fulfilled in everlasting life, as the divinizing will develop into perfect likeness in image. Thus, the involvement in God is a dynamic term – the image aspires after a certain connection with the model and then regenerates it. The perfect fulfillment of the likeness would be apocatastasis. The doctrine itself is the subject of hope of universal salvation, and not exactly a doctrinal certainty.
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Teizm a twardy inkompatybilizm

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PL
Celem artykułu jest przedstawienie stanowiska zwanego twardym inkompatybilzimem i po­rów­nanie go z teistyczną, a w szczególności współczesną chrześcijańską koncepcją wolności woli ludzkiej. Twardy inkompatybilizm głosi, że wolność woli ludzkiej, rozumiana zarówno w sposób libertariański, jak i kompatbilistyczny, nie istnieje. W artykule zwraca się uwagę na pewną zbież­ność między tezą twardego inkompatybilizmu a opartą na Biblii mądrością chrześcijańską, gło­szącą zależność ontyczną i aksjologiczną człowieka od Boga. Zarazem jednak argumentuje się, że jednym z najważniejszych składników teologii i filozofii chrześcijańskiej jest doktryna o wol­ności woli ludzkiej i ludzkiej odpowiedzialności za zło. Doktryna ta jest niespójna z twar­dym inkompatybilizmem. W części końcowej artykułu przedstawiona jest syntetycznie propo­zy­cja, jak można uzgodnić ze sobą tezę indeterminizmu metafizycznego, która jest spójna z twar­dym in­komatybilizmem, z tezą libertarianizmu, która jest niespójna z twardym inkompaty­bi­lizmem.
XX
The aim of the article is to present and to compare the view on human freedom called hard incompatibilism with the contemporary Christian doctrine on human free will. Hard incompati­bilism claims that human free will understood both in a libertarian and compatibilist way does not exist. One stresses in the paper that there is a similarity between hard incompatibilism and Chri­stian wisdom rooted in the Bible and this similarity consists in the fact that humans are deeply dependent in their existence on external conditions. Hard incompatiblism identifies that con­di­tions simply as the external or physical world and Christian wisdom points to God as an onto­logical and axiological foundation of human being and prospects. However, one argues in the paper that the doctrine of human freedom and responsibility for sin and moral evil is a crucial part of the Christian theology and philosophy. Thus, the Christian doctrine is incoherent with hard incompatibilism. There is a proposal, put forth in the last part of the article, how one can recon­cile metaphysical indeterminism—which is coherent with hard incompatibilism—with the liber­tarian doctrine on the human free will, which is coherent with the Christian view on the na­ture of human freedom.
PL
Artykuł podejmuje zagadnienie wolności w kontekście metafizyki i epistemologii Locke’a. W pierwszej części zostały wyróżnione trzy zasadnicze znaczenia, w jakich występuje termin wolność: dobrowolność, wolność działania oraz wolność woli. Przez dobrowolność Locke rozumie zdolność do działania zgodnego z tym, czego chce podmiot. Wolność działania wyraża się w zdolności zarówno do podjęcia jak i zaniechania określonego działania. Zaś wolność woli jest to zdolność do powstrzymania się od działania i dokonania jego oceny biorąc pod uwagę bardziej odległy cel, do którego podmiot dąży. W drugiej części podjęto próbę rozstrzygnięcia dwóch problematycznych kwestii w kontekście wyróżnionych odmian wolności: czy zasadne jest uznawanie poglądów Locke’a za zgodnych ze stanowiskiem kompatybilizmu a także jaki jest związek odmian wolności z moralną odpowiedzialnością podmiotu za swoje czyny. Analiza tych zagadnień wykazała, że tylko dobrowolność może współwystępować z koniecznością, dlatego aby móc określić zgodność poglądów Locke’a z kompatybilizmem należy wskazać, którą z odmian wolności się przyjmuje. Biorąc pod uwagę drugą kwestię uznano, że moralna odpowiedzialność jest związana z wszystkimi odmianami wolności.
XX
The article presents the problem of freedom in Locke’s metaphysics and epistemology. The analysis of the source text shows, that he uses the concept of freedom in the three different meanings. The first one is voluntary that can be described as the power to do what the agent wants. Next is freedom of action which is the ability to do what the agent wants to do and also to stop doing this whenever he wants to. The last one is freedom of will that means the power to refrain from performing an action. After that the agent can think about his decision and make it more thoughtful and accurate. In order to characterize these kinds of freedom it is necessary to answer to following questions: Which kind of these three types of freedom presented by John Locke is compatible with determinism? And the second question is: what kind of freedom relates to moral responsibility? The final analysis shows that only voluntary can coexist with determinism. Therefore Locke should not be interpreted as compatibilist for all of three kinds of freedom in his theory. Answering to the second question, moral responsibility is connected with every kind of freedom. In each case an agent has the free choice and can realize his own desires.
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2020
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vol. 67
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issue 7
111-139
EN
The article focuses on two topics of Martin Luther’s theology - his vision of God and the understanding of freedom of will. It does so through the prism of two contemporary interpretations of the Reformer’s theology prepared by Oswald Bayer and Hans-Martin Barth, reputable researchers of Martin Luther. Their analyses, which differ in their perspective and order, show the theology of Martin Luther as imbued with the radical vision of an almighty God and passive man who has no freedom of will regarding salvation. These reconstructions were inscribed in the diagnosis of key structures of Martin Luther’s theology by Albrecht Beutel: its rooting in the Christocentric interpretation of the Bible, its understanding in terms of the art of discrimination, and its basing on experience.
PL
Artykuł skupia się na dwóch wątkach teologii Marcina Lutra – jego wizji Boga i pojmowaniu wolności woli. Czyni to przez pryzmat dwóch współczesnych interpretacji teologii Reformatora przygotowanych przez renomowanych luterologów – Oswalda Bayera i Hansa-Martina Bartha. Ich odmienne w swej perspektywie i uporządkowaniu analizy ukazują teologię Marcina Lutra jako przepojoną radykalną wizją Boga wszechmocnego i pasywnego człowieka, który nie posiada wolności woli w kwestii zbawienia. Te rekonstrukcje teologii wittenberczyka zostały wpisane w pochodzącą od Albrechta Beutela diagnozę kluczowych struktur teologii Marcina Lutra: jej zakorzenienie w chrystocentrycznej wykładni Pisma Świętego, jej pojmowanie w kategoriach sztuki rozróżniania oraz jej oparcie na doświadczeniu.
EN
The article focuses on the question of the problem of moral responsibility in the context of John Martin Fischer semicompatibilism. The issue of the article includes Aristotle, Harry Gordon Frankfurt and others, within which Fischer and Mark Ravizza formulate a counterexample to solve Frankfurt-style case of “Counterfactual Interventer”. The purpose of this article is to show the relationship between the principle of alternative possibilities and the legitimacy of assigning moral responsibility for the decision, act, omission and their consequences. Originality of Fischer and Ravizza solution situates the position of the two philosophers as a particular manifestation of contemporary compatibilism dispute concerning the freedom of the will and the relationship between determinism and autonomy of the person.
IT
Il termine anima significa il principio primo dell’attivita di tutti gli esseri viventi, anche se con particolare riferimento all’uomo. L’anima e di natura spirituale, pero la spiritualita dell’anima non e evidente. Per scoprirla non basta la semplice autocoscienza, l’introspezione, come intendeva sant”Agostino. Secondo l”Aquinate ci vuole diligens et subtilis inquisitio. Occorre dimostrarla. Punto di partenza della indagine (inquisitio) sono le operazioni dell’anima, perche il modo di operare di una cosa corrisponde al suo modo di essere. San Tommaso riconduce tutta la gamma dell’agire dell’anima razionale a due facolta principali: l’intelletto e la volonta.
EN
Ancient philosophy distinguished three meanings of the notion of freedom: an individual man's freedom of choice and decision, freedom of social-political life and freedom (sovereignty) of the state. This latter meaning was considered the most important form of freedom. In his conception of an “ideal state” Plato advised abolition of private property and monogamy for the political élite (the so called “guards”), which is a feature of a totalitarian state. He distinguished three models of state: monarchic, aristocratic and democratic. He accepted the latter model, but he warned against maximising individual freedom, as it leads to anarchy in social life, which in turn is a source of tyranny. Aristotle appreciated democracy more, as it best puts into effect the postulates of freedom, equality and justice. The other form of freedom, according to his approach, is freedom understood as enabling a man to choose rationally, which should be preceded by reflection. His conception of man's existential freedom (proaíresis) is close to the theory of free will (liberum arbitrium) in the Christian thought. The Stoics concentrated their attention on inner-moral freedom that they identified with the attitude of keeping a distance to man's existential vicissitudes. Some of them (Marcus Aurelius) joined the idea of inner freedom with philosophy of naturalistic pantheism, others (Epictetus) considered God as the source of moral freedom. Plotinus was also mainly interested in man's inner freedom, which he explained in the context of the pantheistic conception of the absolute.
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