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EN
The non-refoulement principle is nowadays considered to be a fundamental norm of international refugee law. It protects refugees before being expelled to a state in which they might be exposed to persecution. While the customary nature of the non-refoulement principle in international refugee law is unquestionable, opinions on its ius cogens status are not commonly accepted. The emerging of the ius cogens norm requires the fulfillment of a sociological, normative and axiological criteria. At the actual stage of the development of the non-refoulement principle, is not possible to determine whether it acquired ius cogens status, as the above mentioned criteria in the case of non-refoulement have not yet been met together. The views of UNHCR and some doctrinal representatives accepting the imperative nature of non-refoulement should be regarded as voices expressing only a deep concern as regards the need to establish standards of conduct in the field of international refugee law, which would be erga omnes and allowing for effective control of the practices of states and international organizations.
PL
Autorka wskazuje w artykule, że współcześnie mamy do czynienia z konfliktami zbrojnymi nieposiadającymi charakteru międzynarodowego. Jako przykład podaje konflikt w Syrii i Iraku, podczas którego były i nadal są zagrożone dobra kultury stanowiące komponent dziedzictwa kulturowego wszystkich narodów. Wychodząc od definicji niemiędzynarodowego konfliktu zbrojnego, autorka dostrzega, że tylko nieznaczna część aktów międzynarodowego prawa humanitarnego zapewnia ochronę dóbr kultury w sytuacji zaistnienia konfliktu wewnętrznego. Za dobry krok w kierunku uzupełnienia tej luki prawnej uznaje włączenie przez społeczność międzynarodową zasad poszanowania dóbr kultury w zakres prawa zwyczajowego. Ponadto zauważa, że zasada odpowiedzialności jednostki za naruszenie międzynarodowego prawa humanitarnego może w przyszłości służyć skutecznemu egzekwowaniu ochrony dóbr kultury w konfliktach zbrojnych.
EN
In her article, the author points out that contemporary armed conflicts are often of a non-international nature. She provides the example of the ongoing conflict in Syria and Iraq as one in which cultural property of universal importance has been at risk of destruction. Based on the definition of non-international armed conflict, she notes that only a limited number of treaties belonging to the field of international humanitarian law include provisions aimed at protecting cultural property during an armed conflict. She praises the inclusion of rules concerning the safeguarding of cultural property to the general body of international customary law. She also notes that the introduction of the concept of individual responsibility for violations of international humanitarian law may pave the way for a more efficient exercise of rules concerning the safeguarding of cultural property in armed conflicts.
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