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Kłopoty z myśleniem probabilistycznym

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EN
The paper outlines the development of the idea of probabilistic thinking in western culture and the discovery and development of research on probability. It quotes studies, which show that there might be cultural differences in tendencies to probabilistic thinking. Eventually, it discusses problems that people might have with probabilistic thinking. As research shows, our common sense thinking is in principle deterministic.
2
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Pułapki oceniania

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EN
This paper presents a set of typical fallacies that accompany us in everyday decision-making. One of them is the pre-decisional distortion of information which consists in a tendency to increase the difference between attractiveness of the chosen and rejected alternatives. Another well-known bias is the influence of judgments made in one attribute on judgments in other attributes. This phenomenon is known as the halo effect. An equally common cognitive biasis the primacy effect which refers to overestimating information that appears first and underestimating data presented later in the serial position. The evaluation of choice alternatives is also influenced by other, less known phenomena: the context effect and the framing effect. The former is  esponsible in particular for to tendencies: (2) avoiding extreme choice options and (2) the effect of asymmetric dominance. The latter describes a situation where the evaluation and choice may depend on whether the same result is presented in one or another way. Overcoming cognitive biases of judgment is not easy. The best way seems to be to arrange evaluation conditions in such a way that will prevent fallacies from occurring.
PL
Artykuł ten pokazuje zestaw typowych błędów towarzyszących nam przy podejmowaniu decyzji. Jednym z nich jest przeddecyzyjna stronniczość ocen, która polega na skłonności do powiększania różnicy między atrakcyjnością alternatywy wybieranej i odrzucanej. Od dawna znanym błędem jest przenoszenie ocen z jednych zadań na inne. Zjawisko to nosi miano efektu aureoli. Równie powszechnym błędem oceniania jest zjawisko znane jako efekt pierwszeństwa. Polega ono na przecenianiu pierwszych informacji, a niedocenianiu następnych. W ocenianiu dają o sobie znać także mniej znane efekty: kontekstu i sformułowania. Obserwuje się w szczególności dwie tendencje: (1) unikanie opcji skrajnych oraz (2) efekt asymetrycznej dominacji. Efekt sformułowania polega z kolei na tym, że ocena i wybór mogą zależeć od tego, czy ten sam wynik zostanie opisany w jeden, czy drugi sposób. Nie jest rzeczą łatwą przezwyciężyć błędy oceniania. Najlepszym sposobem wydaje się takie organizowanie warunków oceniania, żeby znane pułapki nie mogły się w ogóle pojawić.
PL
W teorii decyzji zakłada się indywidualny stosunek decydenta do ryzyka. Chciałoby się zatem umieć określać (mierzyć) ten stosunek. Jednakże pomiar stosunku jednostki do ryzyka, dokonywany za pomocą różnych technik, okazuje się niezgodny. Pojawia się dalsze pytanie, czy stosunek do ryzyka u tej samej osoby jest taki sam, czy różny w rozmaitych sferach życia. Prezentowane badanie pokazuje, że stosunek ten jest zróżnicowany. Okazało się także, że skłonność do ryzyka, w zależności od dziedziny, różni takie grupy społeczno-demograficzne jak: grupy dochodowe, narodowe czy mężczyzn i kobiety.
EN
The focus of this paper is the role of emotions in judgments and choices associated with moral issues. Study 1 shows that depending on the strength of emotions when making a moral decision, people become sensitive to the severity and the probability of harm that their decisions can bring to others. A possible interpretation is that depending on the strength of emotions, people in their moral judgments choose to be either utilitarian or deontologist. In Study 2, following the priority heuristic model, we found that in situations in which the violation of moral norms does not evoke strong negative emotions, people are sensitive to quantitative risk parameters (probabilities and outcomes), and the decision-making process requires a relatively longer time. In moral situations in which a violation of the moral norm evokes strong emotions, decision-making is based on arguments other than quantitative risk parameters, and the process takes a shorter time.
EN
The present research investigated the perception of the flood threat and willingness of inhabitants of regions experiencing regular severe floods to take preventive actions.Residents of two type of regions were compared: those living in a region protected by flood levees vs. residents living unprotected regions. Inhabitants of the area protected by the levees resulting in the rare experience of flood, perceived probability of flood as lower and  reported higher willingness to take preventive actions than inhabitants of the area unprotected by levees. Similarly as in many previous studies personal experience and social norms turned out to be crucial factors in determining self-protective behavior. On the other hand unlike in other studies, we found no relationship between decision makers’ willingness to take preventive actions and factors related to threat appraisal, such as the perceived magnitude of loss and the perceived probability of damage. Finally, we found that the impact of a given factor on willingness to protect oneself against a hazard may depend on the kind of measure of the protective behavior
PL
The present research investigated the perception of the flood threat and willingness of inhabitants of regions experiencing regular severe floods to take preventive actions.Residents of two type of regions were compared: those living in a region protected by flood levees vs. residents living unprotected regions. Inhabitants of the area protected by the levees resulting in the rare experience of flood, perceived probability of flood as lower and  reported higher willingness to take preventive actions than inhabitants of the area unprotected by levees. Similarly as in many previous studies personal experience and social norms turned out to be crucial factors in determining self-protective behavior. On the other hand unlike in other studies, we found no relationship between decision makers’ willingness to take preventive actions and factors related to threat appraisal, such as the perceived magnitude of loss and the perceived probability of damage. Finally, we found that the impact of a given factor on willingness to protect oneself against a hazard may depend on the kind of measure of the protective behavior.The present research investigated the perception of the flood threat and willingness of inhabitants of regions experiencing regular severe floods to take preventive actions.Residents of two type of regions were compared: those living in a region protected by flood levees vs. residents living unprotected regions. Inhabitants of the area protected by the levees resulting in the rare experience of flood, perceived probability of flood as lower and  reported higher willingness to take preventive actions than inhabitants of the area unprotected by levees. Similarly as in many previous studies personal experience and social norms turned out to be crucial factors in determining self-protective behavior. On the other hand unlike in other studies, we found no relationship between decision makers’ willingness to take preventive actions and factors related to threat appraisal, such as the perceived magnitude of loss and the perceived probability of damage. Finally, we found that the impact of a given factor on willingness to protect oneself against a hazard may depend on the kind of measure of the protective behavior.
6
63%
PL
Chociaż zgodnie z definicją i z potoczną obserwacją przedsiębiorcom można przypisać większą niż innym ludziom skłonność do podejmowania ryzyka, to jednak ze względu na wysoką motywację osiągnięć przedsiębiorcy nie są skłonni do podejmowania bardzo wysokiego ryzyka. Przedsiębiorcy nie są też skłonni do podejmowania każdego rodzaju ryzyka, jeżeli już, to podejmują ryzyko związane ze sprawnością raczej niż z losem. W konfrontacji z owym ryzykiem zależnym od sprawności przyjmują postawę aktywną i starają się ryzyko kontrolować. Wobec zdarzeń od nich niezależnych przedsiębiorcy nie wydają się bardziej optymistami niż inni, tj. nie przeceniają bardziej niż inni ludzie prawdopodobieństwa pozytywnych zdarzeń. To, co jednak zdaje się wyróżniać przedsiębiorców, to zauważona już przez Knighta większa niż u innych wiara w siebie.
EN
Data from surveys indicate that people, in general, do not trust others. On the other hand, in one-shot trust games, where the player decides whether to send money to an anonymous partner, the actual rate of trust is relatively high. In two experiments, we showed that although reciprocity expectations and profit maximization matter, they are not decisive for trusting behaviour. Crucial factors that motivate behaviour in trust games seem to be altruism and a type of moral obligation related to a social norm encouraging cooperative behaviour. Finally, we were able to divide participants into specific profiles based on amount of money transferred to the partner, altruistic motivation, and belief in partners’ trustworthiness. This shows that the trust game is differently perceived and interpreted by different participants.
19
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Maya Bar-Hillel

17%
20
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Ward Ewdwards

16%
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