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EN
The developing digital economy necessitates establishing a new tax framework. In this context, work has been undertaken at the international and EU forums, and at the same time some countries have introduced their own solutions in the form of tax on digital services. Spain has recently joined the group of these countries, where in January this year a tax on certain digital services has entered into force. The presentation of this new levy in the Spanish tax system is intended to contribute to further discussion on the tax challenges of the digital economy.
PL
Rozwijająca się gospodarka cyfrowa wymusza konieczność ustalenia nowych ram podatkowych. W tym kontekście podjęto prace na forum międzynarodowym i unijnym, a równolegle niektóre z krajów wprowadziły własne rozwiązania w zakresie podatku od usług cyfrowych. Ostatnio do grupy tych krajów dołączyła Hiszpania, w której w styczniu br. wszedł w życie podatek od określonych usług cyfrowych. Przedstawieniu tej nowej daniny w hiszpańskim systemie podatkowym stanowi przyczynek do dalszej dyskusji o wyzwaniach podatkowych gospodarki cyfrowej.
EN
The article presents problematic issues related to the rules of determining the tax capacity of entrepreneurs in income taxes, both in the domestic and international aspects, taking into account the currently applicable solutions and some proposals for changes. The purpose of the article was a multifaceted theoretical and legal analysis of the issues in this area so as to be able to assess the adequacy of the current principles for the proper implementation of this concept, and determine the main problems and possible directions of searching for their solutions. The research hypothesis assumed that the current rules for determining the tax capacity of entrepreneurs in income taxes in many aspects are inadequate for the proper implementation of the concept of tax capacity and should be modified accordingly. The analysis was carried out using the dogmatic and legal-comparative methods. It shows that, in many respects, the current rules for determining the tax capacity of entrepreneurs in income taxes do not ensure the correct implementation of the principle of tax capacity and the fundamental principles of fairness and neutrality of taxation associated with it. This applies in particular to the abandonment of income determination in favour of revenue taxation, the differentiation of the rules for measuring the tax result or the failure to adapt the applicable rules to the modern reality of conducting business activity in the conditions of a globalised digital economy. Some problems can be solved by implementing comprehensive solutions developed internationally within the OECD and in the EU. In the assumptions of these international tax projects, the fundamental category in the context of determining the tax result is the financial result, which, combined with the growing development of tax law standards aimed at minimising the phenomena of tax avoidance and evasion or tax optimisation, makes it seem potentially more and more possible to determine the tax capacity of entrepreneurs in income taxes through its natural measure, which is the financial result on their business activity (appropriately adjusted for tax purposes), which would best reflect the essence of the concept of an economic source of taxation under the principle of tax capacity.
PL
W artykule zostały przedstawione zagadnienia problemowe związane z zasadami określania zdolności podatkowej przedsiębiorców w podatkach dochodowych, zarówno w aspekcie krajowym, jak i międzynarodowym, z uwzględnieniem obecnie obowiązujących rozwiązań, jak i pewnych propozycji zmian. Cel artykułu stanowiła wieloaspektowa analiza teoretycznoprawna problematyki w tym zakresie, tak aby móc ocenić adekwatność obecnych zasad do prawidłowej realizacji tej koncepcji, ustalić główne problemy i określić możliwe kierunki poszukiwania ich rozwiązań. Hipoteza badawcza zakładała bowiem, iż obecne zasady określania zdolności podatkowej przedsiębiorców w podatkach dochodowych w wielu aspektach są nieadekwatne do prawidłowej realizacji koncepcji zdolności podatkowej i powinny ulec stosownej modyfikacji. Analiza została przeprowadzona z użyciem metody dogmatycznej i prawno-porównawczej. Wynika z niej, iż rzeczywiście w wielu aspektach obecne zasady określania zdolności podatkowej przedsiębiorców w podatkach dochodowych nie zapewniają prawidłowej realizacji zasady zdolności podatkowej oraz związanych z nią fundamentalnych zasad sprawiedliwości i neutralności opodatkowania. Dotyczy to w szczególności odstępowania od ustalania dochodu na rzecz opodatkowania przychodu, zróżnicowania zasad pomiaru wyniku podatkowego czy niedostosowania obowiązujących zasad do współczesnej rzeczywistości prowadzenia działalność gospodarczej w warunkach zglobalizowanej gospodarki cyfrowej. Niektóre problemy mogą zostać rozwiązane w wyniku wdrożenia kompleksowych rozwiązań wypracowanych na forum międzynarodowym w ramach OECD i w UE. W założeniach tych międzynarodowych projektów podatkowych fundamentalną kategorią w kontekście ustalania wyniku podatkowego jest wynik finansowy, co w połączeniu z narastającym rozwojem norm prawa podatkowego ukierunkowanych na minimalizowanie zjawisk unikania i uchylania się od opodatkowania lub optymalizacji podatkowej, powoduje, iż wydaje się potencjalnie coraz bardziej możliwe określanie zdolności podatkowej przedsiębiorców w podatkach dochodowych poprzez naturalny jej miernik, jakim jest wynik finansowy z prowadzonej działalności (odpowiednio skorygowany dla celów podatkowych), co najlepiej oddawałoby istotę koncepcji ekonomicznego źródła opodatkowania w ramach zasady zdolności podatkowej.
EN
Financial services due to the possibility of using virtual currencies (mainly bitcoins) for payments based on blockchain technology take on a new dimension. Making direct payments with the use of cryptocurrencies creates numerous tax-related issues, both in terms of acquiring and trading in virtual currencies, including in particular using them to perform the payment function, but also treating them as an investment or commercial activity. The issues related to this generate numerous tax challenges, both in the income tax system, as well as in turnover and property tax systems. These challenges, resulting from the need to determine the tax consequences of the use of blockchain technology in the financial services system for payments with cryptocurrencies, this paper has been devoted to.
PL
Usługi finansowe wobec możliwości wykorzystania do płatności walut wirtualnych (przede wszystkim bitcoina), opartych na technologii blockchain, nabierają nowego wymiaru. Dokonywanie płatności bezpośrednich z użyciem kryptowalut kreuje zagadnienia istotne podatkowo, zarówno w zakresie samego pozyskiwania, jak i obrotu walutami wirtualnymi, w tym w szczególności wykorzystywania ich do realizacji funkcji płatniczej, ale także traktowania jako inwestycji lub przedmiotu działalności handlowej. Kwestie z tym związane generują liczne wyzwania podatkowe, zarówno w systemie podatków dochodowych, jak i podatków obrotowych oraz majątkowych. Tym wyzwaniom w zakresie podatkowych konsekwencji stosowania w systemie usług finansowych technologii blockchain dla płatności z użyciem kryptowalut poświęcono niniejszy artykuł.
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Podatkowe aspekty wolontariatu

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EN
The article presents tax aspects of volunteering in the area of legal and tax issues in reference to the income tax issues. The analysis has been based on dogmatic and legal method. As a result of the analysis, the main problematic issues were identified, the adequacy of tax solutions to the specificity of volunteering and public benefit activities of non-governmental organizations was assessed and de lege ferenda postulates were formulated.
PL
W artykule przedstawiono podatkowe aspekty wolontariatu w zakresie zagadnień prawno-podatkowych z obszaru podatków dochodowych. Analiza została przeprowadzona z zastosowaniem metody dogmatycznoprawnej. W jej wyniku wyodrębniono główne zagadnienia problemowe, oceniono adekwatność rozwiązań podatkowych do specyfiki wolontariatu i działalności pożytku publicznego organizacji pozarządowych oraz sformułowano pewne postulaty de lege ferenda.
EN
The article aims to provide a general description of the Spanish tax system, taking into account the latest solutions introduced in 2021 and presenting the specific features of this system.
PL
W artykule przedstawiono ogólną charakterystykę hiszpańskiego systemu podatkowego z uwzględnieniem najnowszych rozwiązań wprowadzonych w 2021 r. oraz omówiono specyficzne cechy tego systemu.
EN
The aim of this paper is to draw attention to a certain issue of family income taxation and to present the basic problems in this area in modern tax systems. The considerations were focused on the issue of correct determination of the family’s tax capacity, confronting also the concept of taxpayer taxation with taxation of the family unit and the issue of the meaning and scope of reliefs in the form of tax deductions available to families. An attempt was also made to answer the question whether income tax should be used to stimulate families or whether, due to its fiscal purpose, it should be neutral, but with the correct determination of tax capacity in the family.
PL
Cel niniejszego referatu stanowi zwrócenie uwagi na pewne zagadnienie opodatkowania dochodu rodziny i zaprezentowanie podstawowych problemów w tym zakresie we współczesnych systemach podatkowych. Rozważania zostały skoncentrowane na kwestii prawidłowego ustalania zdolności podatkowej rodziny, skonfrontowaniu koncepcji opodatkowania podatnika z opodatkowaniem jednostki rodzinnej oraz zagadnieniu znaczenia i zakresu ulg w formie odliczeń od podatku dostępnych dla rodzin. Podjęto też pewną próbę odpowiedzi na pytanie, czy podatek dochodowy ma być wykorzystywany do stymulacyjnego oddziaływania na rodziny, czy też, z uwagi na cel fiskalny, powinien być neutralny, ale przy prawidłowym ustalaniu zdolności podatkowej w rodzinie.
EN
In contemporary economic turnover, there is a significant variety of ways of performing paid work. The aim of this paper is to analyse their tax aspects in the context of the principle of justice, to which the principle of equality is closely related. The research hypothesis assumes that the Polish tax system, by providing fundamentally different taxation rules depending on the form of employment, differentiates the tax burden for income obtained from various forms of work. The further hypothesis assumes that this differentiation is unjustified and infringes the principle of equality; it constitutes an injustice in taxation and, moreover, infringes the principle of neutrality, as it may potentially influence the taxpayers’ decisions as to the choice of form of employment motivated by tax considerations. To verify these hypotheses, various forms of performing paid work and the income tax acts concerning them were analysed. The analysis was carried out using the dogmatic-legal and legal-comparative methods. As a result, some recommendations de lege ferenda in the Polish legal system were formulated in order to ensure a neutral and fair system of taxation of income from paid work.
PL
We współczesnym obrocie gospodarczym występuje znaczna różnorodność form wykonywania pracy zarobkowej. Celem niniejszego opracowania jest analiza ich aspektów podatkowych w kontekście zasady sprawiedliwości, z którą ściśle jest związana zasada równości. Hipoteza badawcza zakłada, iż polski system podatkowy, przewidując zasadniczo odmienne reguły opodatkowania w zależności od formy zatrudnienia, różnicuje ciężar podatkowy dla dochodów osiąganych z różnych form świadczenia pracy. Dalsza hipoteza zakłada, że to zróżnicowanie jest nieusprawiedliwione i powoduje naruszenie zasady równości; stanowi przejaw niesprawiedliwości w opodatkowaniu, a ponadto powoduje naruszenie zasady neutralności, gdyż może potencjalnie wpływać na decyzje podatników co do wyboru formy zatrudnienia motywowane przesłankami podatkowymi. Aby zweryfikować te hipotezy, poddano analizie różne formy wykonywania pracy zarobkowej oraz dotyczące ich uregulowania ustaw o podatkach dochodowych. Analiza została przeprowadzona z użyciem metody dogmatyczno-prawnej i prawno-porównawczej. W jej wyniku sformułowanopewne rekomendacje de lege ferenda w celu zapewnienia bardziej sprawiedliwego i neutralnego systemu opodatkowania dochodów z pracy zarobkowej w polskim systemie prawnym. 
EN
The purpose of this paper is to characterize the Spanish tax system and to present the main assumptions of tax policy in Spain in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic framework in order to formulate conclusions as to the desirable (or undesirable) directions of tax policy in other countries, including Poland in particular. In fact, the research hypothesis is that, to a large extent, certain changes in the Spanish tax system in 2021 may inspire the orientation of tax policies in other countries, especially in Poland. Spain, like other countries, had to face a need to modify its tax policy due to the effects and challenges that the pandemic period has created, but the Spanish tax policy was shaped in a completely different way than the Polish policy in the same pandemic circumstances. Obviously, it is necessary to take into account systemic differences in both countries, but these may also constitute a contribution to the determination of the desired directions of systemic changes, on the basis of the experiences from the pandemic period, which highlighted many – not only temporary – problems. The methodology used in the paper is a dogmatic-legal and legal-comparative method, taking into account the provisions of constitutional law and tax law, the body of literature and case law as well as some economic data. The results of the research is the formulation of some conclusions as to the desirable directions of tax policy taking into account the indisputable need for higher or additional tax revenues (necessary in the face of excessive fiscal indicators), but at the same time realizing the basic tax principles, such as, in particular, the principles of tax capacity, equity, simplicity and transparency and respecting the financial autonomy of regional and local self-government units. In fact, a responsible tax policy should be aimed at ensuring financial as well as environmental sustainability, while being relevant to the current times and their economic, technological and social realities, always in line with the fundamental principle of social justice and tax (economic) capacity. This means, in particular, that the increase in public burdens (if that may not be avoided for the implementation of the fiscal function) should affect carefully selected entities – those with a greatest tax capacity (e.g., tax payers with the highest incomes or the largest assets). On the other hand, it may serve important non-fiscal objectives (changing unfavourable dietary habits, countering speculative transactions, protecting the environment). At the same time, for these assumptions to have a positive effect, it is necessary to combat tax avoidance at its roots by building up the conviction among taxpayers that the tax system is fair, transparent and friendly, and for this purpose, it is necessary to be honest in the messages addressed to taxpayers about the foundations and assumptions of that system and to facilitate its practical operation in contacts with the tax administration. Finally, in the context of the fact that the fiscally negative consequences of the so-called Polish Deal are largely borne by local governments, attention should be paid to the Spanish system, in which regional and local governments have extensive tax authority, which allows them to "neutralize" tax decisions of the national legislator that are undesirable from their point of view and may threaten their financial independence or create excessive tax burden for their citizens
EN
The purpose of this paper is a multifaceted theoretical and legal analysis of the issue of determining the tax capacity of entrepreneurs in income taxes so as to be able to assess the adequacy of the rules in this area for the proper implementation of this concept. The research hypothesis assumes that these rules currently in force, to a large extent, do not ensure proper implementation of the concept of tax capacity, especially in the conditions of the digitalized and globalized economy, but also in times of progressive development of instruments to counteract not only tax evasion but also tax avoidance. Therefore, it is necessary to change them in many aspects. The research was carried out using a dogmatic and comparative legal method, taking into account in particular the provisions of domestic, foreign and EU laws, the body of domestic and foreign tax law literature, court rulings and proposals for new tax and legal solutions put forward on the EU and international forum. The analysis took into account the essence of the tax capacity concept and closely related tax principles, as well as the functions of taxes, both in the national and international context. The results of the research is the formulation of some conclusions as to the desirable guidelines for determining the rules for measuring the tax capacity of entrepreneurs in income taxes, which should be related to the fundamental concept of tax capacity and the principles of equity and neutrality of taxation. Currently, these principles are violated in many national, as well as international aspects, i.a. by deviating from the criteria of income as an indicator of tax capacity. In this context a very important distinction should be made between situations where the abandoning of the determination of income of entrepreneurs is justified by the pursuit of a fair distribution of the tax burden (as, e.g., in case of so-called digital tax) and situations when it results from the desire to achieve certain non-fiscal goals. In such a case, any variation in those rules must be assessed on a case-by-case basis as to whether it is justified. On the other hand, in the former case, even temporarily – especially in the international aspect – until international solutions are worked out, it may even be indispensable to differentiate the rules for determining the tax capacity of entrepreneurs (e.g. abandoning the criterion of income in favor of revenue in digital tax) precisely in order to ensure fair and neutral taxation. In this context, it is worth noting that some of the problems underlying these different approaches may be solved by a comprehensive reform of the rules for determining the tax capacity of entrepreneurs, to be developed both internationally within the OECD and in the EU within BEFIT. It should also not be underestimated that in these projects the fundamental categories and concepts are those of balance sheet law, including in particular the proposed adoption of the concept of adjusted financial result for the purposes of determining the tax result. Taking into account this issue and also in a view of the increasing development of general tax law norms aimed at minimizing the phenomena of tax avoidance and optimization, it seems worth considering an increasing possibility that the tax capacity of entrepreneurs should be determined by its natural measure, i.e. the financial result of their business activity.
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