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1

'Stupid' Animals in Ancient Natural Histories

100%
Kostuch L.
Organon
|
2020
|
vol. 52
5-30
EN
Over the centuries since antiquity, nature writers have evaluated different animal species. One criterion for such an evaluation has been intellect. At the lowest point on the scale of intellectual abilities was stupidity. Ancient authors often attributed inadequate intellect to various animal species by using pejorative expressions. The aim of this study is to determine which animal species Greek and Roman writers considered as inferior in the hierarchy of intellectual abilities, and why these species were chosen in particular. Furthermore, the paper attempts to verify the evaluations formulated in antiquity in light of contemporary observations of nature.
2

(‘Pantes theoi’, Polemos and Ares on the Battlefield. The Greek Concept of the War Deity

100%
Kostuch L.
Symbolae Philologorum Posnaniensium Graecae et Latinae
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2011
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vol. 21
|
issue 1
41-48
EN
The Hellenes created a concept of potential military engagement by all gods. In martial contexts, Greek authors often included the concepts of “all-the-gods” (pantes theoi), “god” (theos), divine being (daimonion) and holy power (hieros), which signify interference by unidentified divine forces. The relationship between war and gods may thus be defined ex definitione. The question arises as to the basis of this way of thinking. It seems that the answer should be sought in the basic definition of war – polemos. War is only occasionally personified. The answer to the question of why Polemos never became a clearly defined divine figure and mythological hero can be found in Homer. In the Iliad many deities, although not all, have military might (polemos) at their disposal and participate in directing martial activities. It is for this very reason that this force never became an independent one – war arises as a result of what can be termed a divine “chain reaction”. The existence of war is thus dependent on the gods who make it active as the result of a stimulus. It is significant that Ares, just like Polemos, is not fully autonomous. Other deities also carry out the “work of Ares”.
3

Kulawy, zapracowany bękart – Hefajstos. Kilka słów o boskiej i ludzkiej pogardzie w starożytnej Grecji

100%
Kostuch L.
Studia Historica Gedanensia
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2013
|
vol. Volume 4 (2013)
13-23
EN
Although the ancient Greeks did not use the concept of tolerance, they were not unfamiliar with the concept of sneer, malicious laugh or mockery. Tolerance, or the lack of it, can be examined on various levels, also on the most important one deriving from the original meaning of the word tolerantia, that is religion. Although the religious system of the ancient Greeks is commonly described as a "tolerant" one, mainly because their faith did not exclude the existence of gods worshipped by other peoples, the Greek gods – understood as a community – committed acts of injustice and discrimination towards each other. Hephaestus proves to be the best example being the closest to a man of all the Olypmic gods. He experienced pain in the world of gods but in a human manner, which would undoubtedly be considered intolerance today. No other god had so many characteristics of an imperfect human being. The ancient imagination made Hephaestus an impaired god – both on the physical and social plane. He was an illegitimate child, he limped and worked by the sweat of his brow doing the job which was not held in high regard by the Greeks. In short words, Hephaestus represented the type held in contempt in Hellenic society. What is interesting, the oldest description of a derisive laugh in European literature belongs to Hephaestus.
4

Czy można skazać na wygnanie posąg byka? Pauzaniasz o greckich banitach

100%
Kostuch L.
Studia Historica Gedanensia
|
2014
|
vol. Volume 5 (2014)
27-39
EN
God, city resident, son of a king, orator, sculptor, a box with a woman and a child, a statue of a bull, a statue of an athlete, an axe, iron, wood, stone – is a far from complete list of “outlaws” in Pausanias’ Description of Greece. Periegeta combines all those living and lifeless elements, creating a Hellenic monument. He presents what he thinks was the driving force of history: exiles, escapes, displacements, forced migrations due to wars and fighting for power, murders, competition failures, plagues, poor harvests. It all led to creation of new cities, their names, colonization of new areas, erecting new temples and creating works of art. A detail was to become exceptionally famous both because of its artistic value and life wandering, or even disasters. Art and wandering are given the same value by Pausanias. It is confirmed by the exiled sculptures dealt with in Description. The articles also mentions envious gods as a source of exile and wandering, types of exiles: from common murderers to destructive objects; places and forms of exile, including changing into a stone; monuments to commemorate wicked outlaws and healing quality of exiled objects.
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