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1

Czym jest, komu jest potrzebne i do kogo należy dziedzictwo kulturowe?

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Kobyliński Z.

MAZOWSZE Studia Regionalne

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2011

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issue 7

21-47

PL

Artykuł dotyczy definicji dziedzictwa kulturowego, jego wartości dla społeczeństwa oraz problemu jego własności i konfliktów, które wokół własności dziedzictwa kulturowego powstają. Wytwory człowieka, a także wytwory natury, które posiadają wartości duchowe, możemy nazwać dobrami kultury. Dziedzictwem kulturowym jest natomiast ta część dawnych dóbr kultury, która uznana została za wartościową przez kolejne następne pokolenia i dzięki temu dotrwała do chwili obecnej. Pojęcie zabytku najsłuszniej jest zarezerwować dla dawnych materialnych dzieł człowieka. W ostatniej ćwierci XX wieku zauważono, że zjawiska kulturowe mają charakter zasobów, analogicznie do zasobów naturalnych. Dziedzictwo kulturowe jest zasobem ograniczonym, nieodnawialnym i narażonym na zniszczenie zarówno w wyniku działania czynników zewnętrznych, np. rozkładu wynikającego z upływu czasu, jak też w wyniku nadmiernej i niekontrolowanej konsumpcji. Co więcej, zasoby kulturowe są przedmiotem własności wspólnej i trzeba nimi mądrze zarządzać w interesie publicznym. Większość teoretyków za najważniejsze kryteria uznania danego obiektu za należący do kategorii dziedzictwa kulturowego uważa wartość poznawczą i wartość emocjonalną, łącznie określając je często mianem „wartości historycznych” czy „wartości zabytkowych”. Wartość dziedzictwa kulturowego jest wielowymiarowa i może być mierzona na wielu skalach. Niektóre z wartości dziedzictwa są wartościami uniwersalnymi, transcendentnymi, obiektywnymi i bezwarunkowymi. Inne wartości będą miały charakter zrelatywizowany do konkretnego kontekstu społecznego czy kulturowego ich odbiorcy. W odniesieniu do własności dziedzictwa kulturowego, autor – po rozważeniu różnych teorii dotyczących tego zagadnienia – proponuje przyjąć teorię wspólnej własności, której konsekwencją jest zasada wolnego dostępu do wartości dziedzictwa kulturowego. Dziedzictwo kulturowe musi być własnością publiczną w takim sensie, że każdy winien mieć równy dostęp do duchowych wartości, jakie to dziedzictwo w sobie zawiera. Nie oznacza to jednak wcale koniecznie wywłaszczenia prywatnych właścicieli poszczególnych obiektów tworzących dziedzictwo kulturowe. Z punktu widzenia idei wolnego dostępu nie jest bowiem ważne, kto jest właścicielem substancji danego obiektu w sensie prawnym, jeśli tylko korzystanie z tego prawa własności nie narusza interesu publicznego.

EN

This article applies to the definition of cultural heritage, its value to society and to the problem of its ownership, as well as to conflicts that arise around ownership of the cultural heritage. Human creations, as well as creations of nature that have spiritual values, may be called “cultural goods”. “Cultural heritage” is, however, this part of the past cultural goods, which had been considered valuable for the next generations and thus survived to the present. The notion of a “monument” should be reserved for the material remains of the past human activities. In the last quarter of the twentieth century, it was noted that cultural phenomena are the resources, analogous to natural resources. Cultural heritage is a limited resource, non-renewable and vulnerable to damage as a result of both external factors, such as the decay resulting from the passage of time, as well as a result of excessive and uncontrolled consumption. Moreover, the cultural resources are the subject of common ownership and there is a need to manage them wisely in the public interest. Most theorists as the most important criteria for the recognition of an object as belonging to the category of cultural heritage considers its cognitive and emotional values, which jointly are frequently described as "historical value". The value of cultural heritage is multidimensional and can be measured on many scales. Some of the heritage values are the values of universal, transcendent, objective and unconditional character. Other values are related to the particular social or cultural context of the recipient. With regard to the ownership of cultural heritage, the author - after considering various theories on this issue - proposes to adopt the theory of common property, which as a consequence leads to the principle of free access to the cultural heritage. Cultural heritage needs to be public domain in the sense that everyone should have equal access to the spiritual values that the heritage contains. This does not mean necessarily expropriation of private owners of individual objects making up the cultural heritage. From the standpoint of the idea of free access it does not matter who owns the substance of an object in a legal sense, if only the ownership right does not affect the public interest.

2

Otto Braasch (1936–2021) i rozwój archeologii lotniczej w Polsce

100%

Kobyliński Z.

Wiadomości Archeologiczne

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2022

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vol. LXXIII

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issue 73

277-291

EN

The article presents the role of Otto Braasch, a German pilot and aerial archaeologist in the development of aerial archaeology in Poland in the last decade of the 20th century. Otto Braasch at the age of 20 obtained a glider pilot license, and in 1958 he joined the German air force, where until 1980 he served as a supersonic fighter pilot, as a squadron commander, operational officer and deputy wing commander in fighter units, as well as a staff officer at Luftwaffe headquarters. In 1974, he began his activity as a practitioner and theoretician of aerial archaeology, which lasted almost 50 years, initially in southern Germany, and after the collapse of the Communist system in Central Europe, also in the eastern federal states of Germany, in Czechia, Slovakia, Hungary, Poland, Estonia and Latvia. His interests in archaeology developed through personal contacts with the archaeologist and engineer Irwin Scollar, who from 1960 as an employee of the Rhineland National Museum in Bonn was a pioneer of post-war aerial archaeology in Germany, and then with the archaeologist Rainer Christlein, who in 1976, as an employee and later director of the archaeological section of the Bavarian State Office for Monument Protection, initiated regular search for archaeological sites in Bavaria from a plane, carried out by Otto Braasch. In 1980, Otto Braasch left the air force to devote himself entirely and exclusively to aerial archaeology. Until 1989, he served as the aerial archaeologist of the Bavarian Conservation Office, creating from scratch an archive of aerial photographs of archaeological sites in Bavaria, initially stored in Landshut and later in Munich. This archive is currently one of the world’s largest sources of aerial archaeology. Later, the area of his interest became Baden-Württemberg, and after the collapse of the Communist regime in Europe and the reunification of Germany, he began systematic exploration activities in the territory of the East German states – Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, Brandenburg and Mecklenburg-Vorpommern (Fig. 1). This aerial survey initiated by Otto Braasch was and is being continued by his successors, who are in most cases his students. Otto Braasch disseminated his vast knowledge and shared his experiences in numerous publications (Fig. 2), at many conferences and during lectures he gave at the universities of Munich and Berlin. From the point of view of the history of Polish modern archaeology the most important is the missionary activity of Otto Braasch in the countries of the former Soviet bloc. Otto Braasch was one of the initiators of helping archaeologists from Central and Eastern Europe to initiate the aerial prospection of archaeological heritage resources, which became possible on a larger scale after the collapse of the Communist system. He helped archaeologists, including in Poland, as an instructor during practical aerial archaeology training courses, and he also came to Poland several times in the company of Polish archaeologists to make reconnaissance flights in various parts of the country, discovering many previously unknown archaeological sites, including the first Neolithic cult circle in Bodzów in the Lubuskie Province (Fig. 3–8).

PL

Artykuł przedstawia rolę Ottona Braascha, niemieckiego pilota i archeologa lotniczego w rozwoju archeologii lotniczej w Polsce w ostatniej dekadzie XX wieku. Otto Braasch w wieku 20 lat, uzyskał licencję pilota szybowcowego, a w roku 1958 wstąpił do niemieckich powietrznych sił zbrojnych, gdzie do roku 1980 pełnił służbę jako pilot naddźwiękowych samolotów myśliwskich, jako dowódca eskadry, oficer operacyjny i zastępca dowódcy skrzydła w jednostkach myśliwskich, a także oficer sztabowy w kwaterze głównej Luftwaffe. W 1974 roku rozpoczęła się jego trwająca niemal 50 lat działalność jako praktyka i teoretyka archeologii lotniczej, początkowo na terenie południowych Niemiec, a po upadku systemu komunistycznego w środkowej Europie, także na terenie wschodnich krajów związkowych Niemiec, Czech, Słowacji, Węgier, Polski, Estonii czy Łotwy. Jego zainteresowania archeologią rozwinęły się dzięki osobistym kontaktom z archeologiem i inżynierem Irwinem Scollarem, który od 1960 r., jako pracownik Nadreńskiego Muzeum Krajowego w Bonn był pionierem powojennej archeologii lotniczej w Niemczech, a następnie z archeologiem Rainerem Christleinem, który w 1976 r. jako pracownik, a później dyrektor sekcji archeologicznej Bawarskiego Państwowego Urzędu Ochrony Zabytków (Bayerisches Landesamt für Denkmalpflege), zainicjował regularne poszukiwania stanowisk archeologicznych na terenie Bawarii z samolotu, realizowane właśnie przez Ottona Braascha. W 1980 roku Otto Braasch opuścił lotnictwo wojskowe by poświęcić się całkowicie i wyłącznie archeologii lotniczej. Do 1989 r. służył jako archeolog lotniczy bawarskiego urzędu konserwatorskiego, tworząc od podstaw archiwum zdjęć lotniczych stanowisk archeologicznych z terenu Bawarii, początkowo przechowywane w Landshut, a później w Monachium. Archiwum to jest obecnie jednym z największych na świecie zasobów źródłowych archeologii lotniczej. Później obszarem jego zainteresowania stała się Badenia-Wirtembergia, a po upadku reżimu komunistycznego w Europie i zjednoczeniu Niemiec rozpoczął systematyczną działalność poszukiwawczą na obszarze wschodnioniemieckich krajów związkowych – Saksonii, Saksonii-Anhalt, Brandenburgii i Meklemburgii-Pomorza Przedniego. Ta zainicjowana przez Ottona Braascha prospekcja aerofotograficzna była i jest kontynuowana przez jego następców, będących w większości przypadków jego uczniami. Otto Braasch rozpowszechniał swoją ogromną wiedzę i dzielił się swoimi doświadczeniami w licznych publikacjach, podczas wielu konferencji i podczas wykładów, które prowadził na uniwersytetach w Monachium i Berlinie. Dla historii współczesnej polskiej archeologii najważniejsza stała się misjonarska działalność Ottona Braascha w krajach byłego bloku sowieckiego. Otto Braasch był mianowicie jednym z inicjatorów pomocy archeologom z krajów środkowej i wschodniej Europy w rozpoczęciu rozpoznawania lotniczego zasobów dziedzictwa archeologicznego, co stało się możliwe na szerszą skalę po upadku systemu komunistycznego. Służył pomocą archeologom w tym także w Polsce, jako instruktor w czasie praktycznych kursów archeologii lotniczej, a także kilkukrotnie przybywał swoim samolotem do Polski, by w towarzystwie polskich archeologów dokonywać lotów zwiadowczych w różnych częściach kraju, odkrywając wiele nieznanych wcześniej stanowisk archeologicznych, w tym pierwszego neolitycznego kręgu kultowego w Bodzowie, woj. lubuskie.

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I kongres Archeologii Polskiej

100%

Kobyliński Z.

Slavia Antiqua: rocznik poświęcony starożytnościom słowiańskim

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2013

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issue 54

337-342

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POGLĄDY MŁODZIEŻY LICEÓW WARSZAWSKICH NA TEMAT ZABYTKÓW: CZY TEORIE KONSERWATORSKIE SĄ ZGODNE Z OCZEKIWANIAMI SPOŁECZNYMI?

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Kobyliński Z., Paczuska A.

Ochrona Zabytków

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2007

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issue 2

81-92

EN

Finding out about social opinions pertaining to the need for the existence of historical monuments, their value for society, and socially accepted ways of proceeding with such monuments, is of crucial significance for all sorts of programmes dealing with the protection and conservation of historical monuments. If conservation undertakings, based on the opinions of experts and doctrinal principles, are to be remain at odds with social expectations then their effectiveness will be minimal. The process of becoming familiar with views expressed by society should become a point of departure for planning suitable conservation ventures. A poll conducted in 2005 in 17 comprehensive schools in Warsaw became a step towards learning about the knowledge and opinions of Polish youth about historical monuments and the needs and ways of their protection and use. The polls encompassed a total of 1 198 persons in three age groups. Among such questions as the definition of a monument, examples of monuments in the closest environ, Poland, Europe and the world, the need for the protection of historical monuments, the readiness to become involved in activity focused on such protection, etc., the presented article discusses problems reflecting an essential and highly disturbing divergence between the views accepted by the theoreticians of the protection and conservation of historical monuments, on the one hand, and the opinions voiced by the secondary schools students from the Polish capital, on the other hand. These issues concern the nature of historical monuments, the purposes that they should serve, whether they should be used for contemporary purposes, and the limits of the authenticity of a monument, not to be crossed in the course of conservation. Pertinent questions were intentionally formulated in such a way as to test whether the young respondents accept the opinions of contemporary theoreticians of conservation and studies dealing with historical monuments. The overwhelming majority of the respondents supports a vision of historical monuments as isolated, well-guarded objects, serving predominantly tourists, and without the introduction of contemporary economic functions. The answers also suggest a total divergence of the opinions of society and experts as regards suitable methods of conserving seriously damaged monuments. A large part of the respondents (58,88%) spoke in favour of a full and faithful reconstruction resorting to contemporary techniques and accessible material. The second largest group of respondents supports the preservation of “permanent ruins“ (31,95%), and only a small group (7,39%) approved of operations which today numerous theoreticians of conservation regard as most appropriate, i. e. a symbolic preservation of a monument in the form of a historical reference within contemporary architecture (so-called retroversion).

5

Wyniki badań wykopaliskowych grodziska w Klukowiczach na Podlasiu

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Kobylińska U., Kobyliński Z., Wach D.

Wiadomości Archeologiczne

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2003

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vol. LVI

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issue 56

189-227

EN

The fortified settlement at Klukowicze, comm. Nurzec Stacja, distr. Siemiatycze, woj. podlaskie, lies north of the present-day village buildings, occupying one of a number of sandy elevations, which rise from the extensive floodland of the Pulwa stream (Fig. 1). Roughly oval in shape and elongated along its E-W axis (Fig. 2), the settlement contains at present an inner area of some 105 by 135 metres. The rings of three walls and three moats, which surrounded the stronghold in the past, are still partly legible even today. Analysis of stratigraphy exposed in the excavated area of the settlement at Klukowicze helped to distinguish four main phases of occupation (Fig. 3 and 7, Table 3). Pottery recovered included 1 624 fragments (Table 1), a highly mixed collection, reflecting chronological periods documented at Klukowicze and the diversity of vessel forms in use during different occupation phases. Because of this classification of ceramic material had to base on a wide range of criteria, including vessel morphology, ornamentation and technology. Using the above criteria rim sherds were distinguished into ten types (Fig. 8, Table 2). Earliest occupation of the site of the fortified site at Klukowicze going back to the Early Roman Period are indicated by material recovered from features from phase I.1. A settlement set up at that time on a sandy hillock had timber raised post building structures (Fig. 4). Hatched pottery recovered from the postholes is analogous to the material dated to the 1st half of the 1st millennium AD recorded at Hatched (Stroke) Pottery Culture sites in the region (Fig. 9:1–3). There is some suggestion that the site was occupied even earlier, perhaps intermittently. This is indicated by isolated potsherds, which recall forms noted in Pomeranian Culture and the so-called Czerniczyn Group. Alternately, the finds may testify to traditionalism and persistence of earlier models. Phase I.2 is documented by a large quantity of potsherds and daub fragments, the latter retaining impressions of timber elements suggesting that dwellings were built in a light wattle construction and may have contained clay ovens. Traces of primitive iron smelting hearths indicate production of iron from bog ores. Pottery (Fig. 9:4–33, 10:1–9) is in many respects similar to Roman Period wares recorded in the region, eg at Kutowa and Hryniewicze Wielkie (cf J. Andrzejowski 1999), as well as from Khotoml near Brest (G. M. Bjalickaja 1996). Phase I.3 was also a period of intensive settlement activity, evidenced by abundant potsherds (Fig 10:10–37, 11:1–10), a whetstone (Fig. 11:12) and a glass vessel (Fig. 11:13). The latter helped to date phase I.3 to phase C3/D1 of the Roman Period. A substantial admixture of hatched pottery fragments suggests strong influence of Hatched Pottery Culture during this period and intensive contacts maintained during the Late Roman Period by the community at Klukowicze with groups settled in areas east and northeast of the studied site. During phase II.1 (Fig. 11:14–24) the study area was levelled for a new settlement, with greatest activity registered in phase II.2 (Fig. 12), the time of construction of a rampart. This earthwork fortified with timber and faced with stone (Figs 5, 6), probably started to be built during the younger stage of the early medieval period, presumably in the 10th c. Layers associated with occupation phase III produced a large quantity of finds (Figs 13, 14) suggesting intensive activity at the time when the internal wall was destroyed and later. Judging from the youngest pottery destruction presumably occurred late in the 12th or at the beginning of the 13th c. Nevertheless, a 14th c. vessel discovered at the site suggests that the stronghold continued in function in a later period. Phase IV (Fig. 15) corresponds to the final destruction of the settlement area and its earliest structures by numerous post-medieval and modern trenches. The fortified settlement at Klukowicze is situated in a border zone of different cultures; it existed in a period of transition, still imperfectly understood in its complexity. Around the turn of the eras and during the first centuries after Christ the region was an area of contact and overlap of different cultures and of overlapping occurrence of specific products, of trade and migration routes. During phase B2 of the Roman Period dense Przeworsk Culture settlement is documented as far as the edge of the Drohiczyn Heights, only a small distance from Klukowicze. It is reasonable to assume therefore that there may have been lively exchange between Przeworsk Culture people and the community of Klukowicze. Evidence produced by the studied settlement shows that material culture of Przeworsk Culture folk had left their mark on the culture of its eastern outlying areas, one also subjected to substantial long-lived impact of the Hatched Pottery Culture and Zarubintsy Culture. Material evidence from Klukowicze, while retaining its local distinctiveness, reflects lively exchange with other groups inhabiting the region, especially during the Roman Period – heyday of the fortified settlement. Its attribution to any of the Late Roman Period cultures or groups is difficult. Late Roman pottery from the settlement includes elements typical for several different archaeological taxonomic units. In addition, some of these elements were substantially modified, giving the clay vessels from the period a distinctive character. Archaeologist have recently started to realise that a number of archaeological sites investigated in east Podlasie (Hryniewicze Wielkie, Kutowa, Klukowicze) has produced assemblages characterised by evident syncretism, dated to the Late Roman Period and visibly resembling pottery of the so-called Grini and Abidnia types from the upper reaches of the Dnepr (eg, L. D. Pobol, A. V. Iljutik 2002). The presence of both post-Zarubintsy and Hatched Pottery Culture features suggests that the material may be linked with the northern periphery of Kiev Culture – an complex, which researchers are increasingly inclined to identify as the source of crystallization of Slav ethnicity. In addition, Later Roman pottery from Klukowicze shows similarity, in terms of vessel form and manner of treatment of vessel surface, to pottery of the Zaozere-Uzmen group, considered the result of a synthesis of influence of the northern variant of Kiev Culture and the local substrate of the Dneper-Dvina Culture (N. V. Lopatin 2003). Material evidence from the older phases of the early medieval period recorded at Klukowicze indicates continuity of settlement and culture in the region, even in the period of turbulent change at the turn of the antiquity and the early Middle Ages. It is worth noting that material culture of the community inhabiting Klukowicze during the period of interest, prior to the construction of defences, resembles greatly the culture in the neighbouring areas of regions of Mazowsze and Podlasie. The pottery is similar in character to the so-called Prague-Type (or “resembling Prague-Type”); “egg-shaped” forms, described extensively by W. Szymański (1967) as types Ia, Ib, II and III, correspond to types 6b and 8 distinguished in the ceramic material from Klukowicze. However, no culture deposit could unequivocally be equated with the earliest stages of the medieval period while ceramic material from that period was recovered from younger layers. It is likely that the deposits from the older stages of the early medieval period were disturbed during subsequent construction of the rampart. As only a small area has been investigated at Klukowicze layers from the earliest medieval period may survive intact elsewhere on the site. It is unclear whether during this earliest medieval period the site was used as an open settlement or was defended even then by some structure no longer detectable in the investigated part of the fortified settlement. During the later occupation period, in Phase II and partly in Phase III, the pottery shows close links with material from other open settlements and strongholds of Mazowsze and Podlasie. No resemblance is noted on the other hand to material culture of areas more to the east. It is likely therefore that the sandy hummock at Klukowicze was fortified in period when Mazowsze was being colonised by the state of the Piast dynasty around the middle of the 11th c. (M. Miśkiewicz 1981, p. 113). This link is corroborated indirectly by the range of Mazowsze type cemeteries (with graves within stone settings), which in the region have their easternmost extent, reaching right up to the settlement at Klukowicze (K. Musianowicz 1960, pl. IX; V. V. Sedov 1982, p. 121 map 16). The slight thickness of the occupation layer on the inner side of the wall is fairly thin and produced a relatively modest quantity of finds suggests that settlement at the time of construction of the rampart was not very intensive. Alternately it is possible that most of the population lived in open settlements clustering around the stronghold. It is more probable that after the destruction of the stronghold at Klukowicze its function was taken over by the nearest fortified settlement at Bobrówka. Absence of a larger quantity of archaeological material dating form the early 10th c. shows that it is probably futile to search in the region of Klukowicze for traces of a permanent trade route, or the existence of a trading post. The culture situation in the region changed presumably in the 12th c. This is evidenced by Ruthenian elements in the pottery discovered at Klukowicze in deposits corresponding to the period postdating the destruction of the inner rampart. This phenomenon corresponds presumably to political events associated with the occupation of the territory east of the rivers Narew, Liza, Mienia and lower Nurzec by the Ruthenian principalities (M. Miśkiewicz 1981, p. 116). Before concluding it is worth recalling that the significance of the fortified settlement at Klukowicze follows from the presence in its deposits of material evidence from several chronological phases, reflecting the complicated history of the region in late antiquity and early Middle Ages. Of particular importance is the discovery of finds, so far noted only rarely in Poland, which may be linked to the widely conceived Kiev Culture environment in the Late Roman Period, and materials from the older phases of the early medieval period. As such, Klukowicze are particularly important for resolving vital question of ethnic and culture genesis of the Slavs and of settlement and culture continuity at the turn of antiquity and early Middle Ages.

6

Badania archeometryczne ceramiki z wczesnej epoki żelaza ze Starego Kraju na Ziemi Lubuskiej

45%

Agua F., Conde J. F., García-Heras M., Kobylińska U., Kobyliński Z.

Wiadomości Archeologiczne

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2017

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vol. LXVIII

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issue 68

147-178

EN

Early Iron Age settlement of the Polish “Old Country region is a relatively well documented period from recent archaeological fieldworks. Functionally distinct sites, such as strongholds, ceremonial places and cemeteries have been found, covering the chronology between the sixth and the fifth century BC. The results of an archaeometric study undertaken with the aim of approaching the production technology and providing some insights into the probable local or non-local provenance of the main pottery types found in such sites are here reported. Selected pottery samples and modern raw clays from three coeval and functionally distinct sites (the stronghold of Starosiedle, the ceremonial place of Kozów, and the cemetery of Sękowice) were characterized by different techniques, such as thin-section petrography, X-ray diffraction (xrd), scanning electron microscopy (sem) and X-ray fluorescence (xrf) spectrometry. Resulting data indicated the sharing of a single technological tradition among the three sites with no particular specialization concerning the functionality of each site. This tradition is characterized by the general use of non-calcareous illitic clays, which showed a high presence of kaolinitic clay minerals in the case of Starosiedle pottery and a high content of chlorite clay minerals in the case of pottery from Kozów. All the pottery types were fired under predominantly reducing conditions at relatively low temperatures between 700 and 750 °C.

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6 Kobyliński Z.

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Czym jest, komu jest potrzebne i do kogo należy dziedzictwo kulturowe?

Otto Braasch (1936–2021) i rozwój archeologii lotniczej w Polsce

I kongres Archeologii Polskiej

POGLĄDY MŁODZIEŻY LICEÓW WARSZAWSKICH NA TEMAT ZABYTKÓW: CZY TEORIE KONSERWATORSKIE SĄ ZGODNE Z OCZEKIWANIAMI SPOŁECZNYMI?

Wyniki badań wykopaliskowych grodziska w Klukowiczach na Podlasiu

Badania archeometryczne ceramiki z wczesnej epoki żelaza ze Starego Kraju na Ziemi Lubuskiej