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EN
This article is devoted to changes in Bulgarian-Soviet relations in the last decade of the twentieth century. Throughout the whole postwar period the relations between Bulgaria and the Soviet Union were exceptionally close. The connections were rather one-way - the USSR gave Bulgaria economic aid and thanks to that the country became more industrialized and almost until the end of the system could count on Soviet loans and raw materials. Bulgaria in turn repaid the political obedience and the demonstration of particularly close relations binding itself with the USSR, which gave foreign and domestic analysts the bases to name Bulgaria „the most loyal Soviet satellite.” However, along with the end of the Cold War there has been a fundamental geopolitical change. „Special” relations between Bulgaria and the Soviet Union, of which Bulgaria was proud and which were used, were transformed into a barrier and a cause of problems in the Bulgarian transition to market economy. The path, which Bulgaria had to undergo, proved to be longer than in the case of other the Eastern Bloc countries preserving a greater distance of the Soviet Union. Even before the overthrow of Zhivkov, a new trend could be seen - the reorientation of Bulgarian foreign policy from East to West. During the autumn session of the General Assembly of the UN in New York, Petar Mladenov spoke with US Secretary of State, James Baker, and almost openly promised him an immediate implementation of changes in Bulgaria. This indicates that the political forces after Zhivkov in Bulgarian Communist Party were prepared not only to follow Gorbachev, but also to reorient foreign policy of Bulgaria - something that was made by other politicians in the last decade of the twentieth century.
EN
Sport played a special role in the political system of the GDR and was used to achieve political goals, especially in terms of diplomacy. The aim of the article is to show examples of the instrumentalization of sport in the GDR in the context of competition within the Eastern Bloc countries. In the light of the attitude of East German authorities to sport competition and the so-called sporting policythe study points to examples of competition between athletes from the GDR and the Soviet Union and other satellite states. The premise of the article is to point to the reactions of the GDR authorities to the intra-system rivalry of athletes, as well as its political foundations and attempts at instrumentalization. Politically declared friendship and close political cooperation usually did not reflect real competition, which – especially in sport and contrary to propaganda slogans – was usually extremely ruthless and uncompromising. The text is based on the research of thematic German literature and supported by analysis and interpretation of published source materials and archival research.
EN
The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union significantly changed the maps of Europe and Asia. As a rule, the constitutions of the newly independent or newly created states guaranteed the freedom of scientific research; however, in practice this principle, measured by the number of publications with international impact, has been implemented in different ways. This article aims to determine the patterns of international collaboration on academic publications adopted in the countries of the former Eastern Bloc, and suggests possible explanations of differences between them. The research led to identification of four such patterns: 1) isolation from foreign research, 2) effective independence, 3) ineffective collaboration, 4) effective collaboration.
PL
Koniec zimnej wojny i rozpad ZSRR spowodowały znaczące zmiany na mapie Europy i Azji. Konstytucje nowopowstałych i samodzielnych państw, co do zasady, zawierały gwarancję wolności naukowej, jednak jej realizacja mierzona publikacjami w skali międzynarodowej okazała się zróżnicowana. Celem artykułu jest ustalenie poziomu tego zróżnicowania i zaproponowanie tropów wyjaśniających. Na podstawie analizy zidentyfikowano cztery stany publikacyjności międzynarodowej państw dawnego bloku wschodniego: 1) zamknięcie, 2) efektywna samodzielność, 3) nieefektywna współpraca, 4) efektywna współpraca.
EN
Following the dissolution of the Eastern Bloc, many states gained independence and sovereignty, which included also the ability to pursue an independent research policy. The article aims to answer the question whether the geographybased division of these states into European and Asian ones (the Russian Federation is excluded here) corresponds to the differences in the level of academic activity. The results of the conducted analyses reveal that the European states spend a significantly higher share of the state budget on research and development as well as employ significantly more persons in R&D (research and development) sector than the Asian ones. Simultaneously, the authors affiliated to Asian countries have a slightly higher percentage of publications co-written with authors affiliated to other countries, which may suggest adoption of a strategy of intensification of international academic cooperation.
PL
W wyniku rozpadu bloku wschodniego wiele państw uzyskało niepodległość i suwerenność, w tym zdolność do prowadzenia samodzielnej polityki naukowej. Celem artykułu jest odpowiedź na pytanie, czy podział geograficzny uwzględniający państwa europejskie i azjatyckie różnicował poziom ich aktywności naukowej (z wyłączeniem Federacji Rosyjskiej). Wyniki przeprowadzonych analiz wskazują, że państwa europejskie mają istotnie wyższy udział wydatków na badania i rozwój oraz zatrudniają znacznie większą liczbę pracowników w sektorze R&D (ang. research and development) niż państwa azjatyckie. Jednocześnie autorzy afiliujący w państwach azjatyckich mają nieznacznie wyższy udział publikacji pisanych we współpracy z autorami o afiliacji z innych państw, co może wskazywać na przyjęcie strategii intensyfikacji międzynarodowej współpracy naukowej.
EN
State Archive of Contemporary History (Российский государственный архив новейшей истории – RGANI), and encompassed the declassifi ed materials from the fond of the Soviet Communist Party. The materials demonstrate that the Kremlin monitored closely issues concerning the book in Poland during the whole period in question. Moscow was predominantly interested in the Polish writers and their literary production from the point of view of its divergences with the communist ideological paradigm, and the way Russia and the Soviet Union were presented to the Polish public. Apart from that the Soviet authorities analysed and evaluated the Polish publishing sector. Efforts were undertaken to infl uence the publication of Polish books in the Soviet Union, and the Soviet literary output in Poland. To this end bilateral and multilateral agreements were negotiated and signed, during periodically conducted meetings of publishing officials from the Eastern Bloc.
PL
Podstawą źródłową poczynionych ustaleń są odtajnione archiwalia przechowywane w Rosyjskim Państwowym Archiwum Historii Najnowszej (Российский государственный архив новейшей истории – RGANI), pochodzące z zespołu akt sowieckiej partii komunistycznej. Wynika z nich, że sprawy książki polskiej były monitorowane przez Kreml w całym analizowanym okresie. W Moskwie interesowano się przede wszystkim polskimi literatami i ich twórczością pod kątem odstępstw od ideologicznego schematu oraz sposobu przestawiana Rosji i ZSRR. Ponadto władze sowieckie analizowały i oceniały ruch wydawniczy w Polsce. Próbowano wpływać na ofertę wydawniczą książek polskich w ZSRR i radzieckich w Polsce, stosując mechanizmy porozumień zarówno dwustronnych, jak i wielostronnych (systematyczne narady organów wydawniczych państw bloku wschodniego).
EN
The article focuses on the problems of Soviet ‘politics of history’ in the Eastern Bloc in 1945–1989 by the example of selected Slavic countries: Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Bulgaria. The implementation of the Soviet system of political control over history proceeded extremely reluctantly and with varying intensity depending on the historical period and particular country. The scope and degree of interference into the affairs of local disciplines of history in above-mentioned countries changed with the political situation and new tendencies in social and political life. Actions aimed at the history of Slavic countries were sanctioned by the CPSU and implemented in accordance with the interests of the State and the Communist Party of the USSR. Kremlin inspired and subsequently oversaw the realization of joint academic projects, provided guidelines on how to research and interpret historic events, thus constituting a significant element of its ‘politics of history’.
EN
The authors of the article carried out an analysis of sports contacts between Poland and Romania in the time of Stalinism by taking into account the ideological and organisational changes in both countries’ sport as well as sport rivalry. Of importance was also presenting the implementation of the Soviet model of physical culture in Poland and Romania coupled with difficulties and barriers to sports cooperation between Poland and Romania.
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