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XX
W celu przygotowania się do obowiązkowej sprawozdawczości w GUS wykonano w latach 2012 i 2013 projekt pilotażowy pt. Europejskie Rachunki Ekonomiczne Środowiska: moduł podatków środowiskowych. Artykuł ten stanowi zwięzły opis najważniejszych etapów projektu, jego wyników oraz wniosków wynikających ze zrealizowanych prac. (fragment tekstu)
EN
Environmentally related tax accounts are one of the European Environmental Economic Accounts included into Regulation (EU) No. 691/2011 of the European Parliament and the Council of 6 July 2011 on European environmental economic accounts. According to Regulation mentioned above, Member States of the UE are obliged to transmit data on environmental taxes accounts in 2013 for the first time. Some countries, including Poland, have received derogation allowing to transmit data for the first time in 2015. In 2012 and 2013 the pilot project Environmental economic accounts: module for environmental taxes accounts was carried out by Central Statistical Office to prepare for the first data transmission. The main goal of the project was to establish the methodology for compiling environmentally related tax accounts as well as to collect data on Eurostat's questionnaire. This article presents the main stages of the project. (original abstract)
EN
Since 1980, "globalization" has become a key word for organizing our thoughts as to how the world works. Globalization, with its wide implications, can be discussed in various perspectives, such as socio-cultural political and economics. Economists define it as the free movement of goods, services, labour and capital across borders. World Bank defines globalization as "Freedom and ability of individuals and firms to initiate voluntary economic transactions with residents of other countries". Rapid growth of communication technologies such as internet, telephone, cellular phone, satellite and so on had a great impact on the financial globalization building new globalized financial architecture for both private and public entities. Capacity to link people, information and ideas around the globe has changed culture, society and economy, both positively and negatively. In this case, new challenges have emerged also in the field of taxation. This article examines the taxation challenges of e-commerce and discusses the current responses at the academic level, national level, and international level. This discussion concludes that a satisfactory answer to the challenges has not yet arisen, and the need for a different response is essential in this age of e-commerce.
PL
Celem artykułu jest prezentacja stanowiska w kwestii podatków i systemu podatkowego najważniejszego przedstawiciela francuskiej ekonomii klasycznej − Jeana Baptiste’a Saya. W artykule zwrócono uwagę zarówno na wspólne cechy łączące stanowisko Saya z postawą pozostałych klasyków, jak również na jego oryginalne poglądy podatkowe.
EN
The issue of taxation has often been discussed by the representatives of classical economics. They spoke about their types, size and methods for collection, as well as the impact on the subject and object of taxation. The main goal of this article is to present a position on taxes the most important representative of the French classical economics − Jean Baptiste Say. In article draw attention to both, the common features connecting Say ideas with the attitude of the other classics as well as his original tax views.
EN
The article aims at presenting opportunities for applying a tax strategy by companies in the context of the tax on goods and services in the subject related layer. Major problems and decisional criteria of selection of the subject related status of companies in the context of this tax are identified. Much attention is paid to subject exemptions from the tax on goods and services and a category of the so-called "small taxpayer". An analysis of economic results of selecting diversified subject related statuses in the context of the tax on goods and services by companies is made.
EN
The subject of paper is to identify factors determining the propensity of local authorities to tax competition. The essence of tax competition is to gain the source of tax revenues. Hence, it is very convenient to make assumption that the prime factor intensifying tax competition should be fiscal deficit. The need to finance local budget expenditures amplifying the propensity to look for additional sources of taxation. Nevertheless it is possible the propensity in question is the consequence of so-called economic deficit. Economic deficit is the difference between per capita expenditures attributed to specified local society and per capita expenditures in reference local society. It is pointed that the number of inhabitants correlates positively with the degree of tax competition intensification. Theoretical investigation allows to suggest two models of tax competition. The distinction between them depends on the relation between the area of local tax impact and the area under administrative power. The model of intensive tax competition is executed when these areas cover each other. The model of extensive tax competition is realized when the impact area includes the administration one. The paper stresses on taking into consideration the problems of the efficiency of tax competition. In suggested context, the crucial problem is the permanence of the source of tax revenues. Especially, the lasting source of taxation induces the growth of efficiency. In particulars, the permanence of tax revenues depends on the existence the barriers of tax jurisdiction leaving.
PL
W artykule oceniono regulacje podatkowe w polskich podatkach dochodowych, umożliwiające zaistnienie efektu klienteli. Oceny dokonano, opierając się na rozwiązaniach teoretycznych. Odwoływały się one do regulacji podatkowych w USA, które stały się drugim układem odniesienia w opracowaniu. Skoncentrowano się głównie na opodatkowaniu dywidend i zysków kapitałowych w polskich podatkach dochodowych, naszkicowano też zmiany opodatkowania w tym obszarze w ostatnich dekadach.
EN
In the paper there have been presented and estimated the tax regulations concerning Polish income taxes enabling the formation of the clientele effect. The estimation has been done on the basis of theoretical consideration. It referred to the tax regulation in the USA, which became another point of reference except for the theoretical solutions. The main idea of the paper was to concentrate on the taxation of dividend and capital gains in Polish income taxes. The changes in the taxation in the discussed area have been outlined for the last decades.
EN
The purpose of the article is to present the legally justified possibilities of influencing tax components from transport means, by the local authority units, as well as the assessment of these powers implementation and their budgetary effects based on the example of cities with county rights. Following the analysis of legal acts it can be stated that the competencies of local authorities are limited in this area and come down only to the possibility of tax rates reduction and their diversification, to introducing tax exemptions based on substantive criteria, tax arrears redemption and spreading their payments into instalments or postponing payment deadlines. The analysis of city budgets in the period 2011-2013 allows for concluding that the significant tax effects resulted from the right to influence tax rates only, however, its influence on total revenues was marginal due to the limited share of the discussed tax in the overall revenue structure.
PL
Celem artykułu jest analiza poziomu współczynnika Giniego przed i po uwzględnieniu podatków oraz transferów, a także analiza wpływu podatków oraz transferów na poziom rozwarstwienia dochodowego w wybranych krajach OECD. Redystrybucja dochodów w analizowanych krajach w niejednakowym stopniu niweluje nierówności społeczne. Rozwarstwienie dochodowe w największym stopniu zostało zredukowane poprzez podatki i transfery socjalne w Irlandii, Finlandii i Belgii, zaś w najmniejszym stopniu w Stanach Zjednoczonych, Kanadzie, Islandii i Holandii. Od regulacji, przyjętych przepisów, polityki, a także charakteru systemu gospodarczego poszczególnego państwa zależy, czy rozwarstwienie dochodowe będzie niwelowane silniej czy słabiej.
EN
This article presents an analysis of the Gini index before and after taxes and social transfers with the aim to study the impact of taxes and social transfers on the income disparity in some of the OECD countries. The main result of this analysis is that the redistribution of income in analyzed countries can minimize income inequalities. The income disparity in the period of 2008-2013 was minimized by the means of taxes and social transfer most efficiently in Ireland, Finland and Belgium and less efficiently in United States, Canada, Iceland and Netherlands. This paper concludes that the efficiency of minimization of the income disparity depends upon the government regulations, fiscal policies, as well as, the overall economic system of a particular country.
PL
Za cel artykułu przyjęto identyfikację barier fiskalnych rozwoju działalności gospodarczej w Polsce prowadzonej na własny rachunek przez osoby fizyczne oraz zaproponowanie rozwiązań ograniczających te bariery. Dokonano porównania obciążeń fiskalnych działalności gospodarczej prowadzonej w niewielkim zakresie w Polsce i Republice Czeskiej. Opisano znaczenie mikroprzedsiębiorstw w analizowanych gospodarkach. Analizując bariery rozwoju, zwrócono w głównej mierze uwagę na obciążenia drobnych przedsiębiorców wysokimi składkami na ubezpieczenie społeczne, Fundusz Pracy i ubezpieczenie zdrowotne. Zaproponowano, by w przypadku samozatrudnionych prowadzących działalność gospodarczą w niewielkim zakresie, wysokość opłacanych składek powiązać z wielkością przychodu. Składki na ubezpieczenie społeczne, Fundusz Pracy, ubezpieczenie zdrowotne, zdaniem autora, powinny przybrać formę ryczałtu od przychodów ewidencjonowanych.
EN
The objectives of the article are: the identification of fiscal barriers which are limiting the development of self-employment in Poland and to propose solutions to reduce these barriers. The author compared the fiscal burden of self-employment in Poland and the Czech Republic. The text describes the importance of micro-enterprises in the analyzed economies. Analyzing the development barriers, the author paid mainly attention to burden small businesses with high social security contributions, labour fund and health insurance. The text proposes that in the case of self-employed amount of paid contributions should be linked to the level of revenues. Contributions to social insurance, labour fund, health insurance, according to the author, should take the form of a lump sum on recorded income.
PL
Celem artykułu jest wskazanie istoty sprawiedliwości podatkowej w kontekście spełnienia zasad powszechności i równości, ale również problemu stosowania przywilejów podatkowych. Kluczowy rozważany dylemat dotyczy zasadniczego konfliktu interesów, jaki pojawia się w sytuacji podatkowej: interes finansowy państwa a interes podatnika.
EN
The purpose of this article is to show the essence of tax justice in the context of the fulfillment of the principles of universality and equality, but also the problem of the use of tax privileges. A key dilemma considered a fundamental conflict of interest, which appears in the tax situation: the financial interests of the state and the interests of the taxpayer.
EN
The actual forestry tax is a relatively new development in the Polish tax system. It was introduced in 1991. It is one of the own revenues of municipalities. Budget revenues of municipalities in respect of forestry tax depend on the economic situation, as well as the degree of afforestation in the municipality. The aim of this publication is to present the economic impact on budget revenues of municipalities in respect of forestry tax. (original abstract)
PL
Zarządzanie przedsiębiorstwem dotyczy wielu obszarów jego funkcjonowania, w tym również aspektu zarządzania otoczeniem fiskalnym. Turbulentne otoczenie podatkowe, związane ze zmianami przepisów i ich interpretacjami, stanowi możliwość kształtowania skutecznej polityki podatkowej przedsiębiorstwa. Kwalifikacja do kosztów uzyskania przychodów wydatków związanych z reprezentacją na tle zmian rozumienia tego pojęcia może stanowić instrument planowania podatkowego w przedsiębiorstwie, co przy dostosowaniu elementów zarządzania podatkami do potrzeb i możliwości przedsiębiorstwa może wpływać na podniesienie efektywności działania jednostki gospodarczej.
EN
Enterprise management touches a great deal of areas, including the issue of the management of fiscal environment. Turbulent tax environment, connected with amendments to the regulations and their interpretations, constitutes the possibility of shaping an effective tax policy of an enterprise. The level of revenue generation, the classification of incurred expenses against tax deductible expenses, are the selected aspects of the tax policy of an enterprise. Another aspect in question is classifying representation expenses as tax deductible expenses. The alterations to the notion of representation result from the modification of law and the change of interpretation. The reaction of an enterprise to the possibility of classifying incurred expenses as tax deductible expenses, or the exclusion of incurred expenses from the expenses decreasing the taxable income, may, as a consequence, affect the profit after taxation, thus exerting an influence on the effectiveness of activity of a business entity.
PL
W ramach polityki gospodarczej wyodrębnia się polityki szczegółowe. Jedną z nich jest polityka podatkowa. Jej istotną cechą jest to, że instrumenty, którymi się posługuje, są normami prawnymi. Z punktu widzenia układów działających, są one uwarunkowaniami, a to oznacza, że kształtują przychody podatkowe w dwojaki sposób, bezpośrednio przez ustalanie zasad obliczania wysokości zobowiązania podatkowego w konkretnej sytuacji i pośrednio poprzez wpływanie na decyzje ekonomiczne podmiotów. Treść, stabilność i przejrzystość tych norm wpływa również na skłonność do podejmowania i rozwijania działalności gospodarczej, a w konsekwencji na realizację celów polityki gospodarczej i kształtowanie się dochodów państwa z podatków.
EN
Economic policy can be split into several detailed policies. One of them is tax policy, characterized by application of law as its tool. From the point of view of systems working in economic systems, tax measurements are determinants – they shape tax income in two ways: directly by setting the rules describing what is the amount of a given tax obligation, and indirectly by shaping economic decisions. Content, stability and transparency of tax norms influences the ability to undertake and develop business enterprises, in consequence leading to fulfillment of economic policy and shape of the state tax income.
EN
Tax on extraction of certain minerals was levied in Poland on 18 April 2012. From the beginning this tax was assessed as a controversial source of central budget revenue. Tax burden and especially tax scale were judged as too high and defective. The new tax is levied only on extraction of copper and silver, which narrows the tax subject. As a result the number of taxpayers is extremely limited to one important object - KGHM Polska Miedź S.A. This company for many years belongs to the group of most fiscally effective corporate income taxpayer's in Poland. Tax on extraction of certain minerals constitutes another significant fiscal burden for business profits which hampers the ability to invest in the long term. The level of tax revenue generated from this source so far has been relatively low in comparison to main tax sources of central budget. From another point of view the level of tax revenues was not symbolic and in the period of global financial crisis should be respected. In the near future taxation subject of the considered tax will be probably extended to other types of natural resources and fuels such as shale gas or other form of hydrocarbons. Potentially the tax revenue generated by this form of taxation could be enormous, just like in many other countries (e.g. Russia, Chile, Norway). The increasing role of tax on extraction of certain minerals revenue is unavoidable due to the raising needs of central budget, which cannot be fulfill in a simple way because of mechanical increase of indirected taxes. On the other hand, taxes on natural resources will probably curb the development process of mining industry in Poland. In conclusion, the level of tax on extraction of certain minerals is not optimal or efficient. Changes in the level of tax burden seem to be necessary.
PL
Zanalizowano problematykę kosztów pracy, tzw. klina podatkowego. Omówiono konstrukcję i poziom klina podatkowego. Zweryfikowano zależności pomiędzy wysokością klina podatkowego a wzrostem gospodarczym, inwestycjami i stopą procentową. Przedstawione zależności w Polsce ukazano na tle krajów OECD. Autorzy zauważają, że "w przypadku Polski nie znalazła statystycznego potwierdzenia opinia o negatywnym wpływie klina podatkowego na tempo wzrostu gospodarczego oraz tempo wzrostu nakładów inwestycyjnych przedsiębiorstw".
EN
In economic debates in Poland it is often stressed, that the high level of costs of work, so so-called tax wedge, negatively influences on outgoings of investments and employment, and in the consequence on economic development. In the article it was tried to verify these opinions, with a support of proper statistical information of OECD countries, including Poland, from 1995 to 2005. Calculated correlation's coefficients did not prove these dependences, on the contrary - demonstrated that increase of tax wedge, in the analyzed period of time, matched the rise of investments' outgoings, revenue and unemployment's decline. During interpreting, it was noticed, that many other factors, connected with polish economy's transformation, business cycle and outside conditions 0had influenced on forming of studied macroeconomic indices. So the conclusions can not be formulated basing on these conditions, which are opposite to common opinions, that high taxes is one of the most important barriers of economic development. (original abstract)
PL
Artykuł został poświęcony różnym aspektom opodatkowania ekologicznego na Ukrainie i w UE. Dokonano podziału podatków ekologicznych na Ukrainie ze względu na podmioty opodatkowania oraz przedstawiono ich zestawienie z podatkami ekologicznymi funkcjonującymi w UE. W pracy zostały odzierciedlone niektóre najwyższe i najniższe kwoty emisji zanieczyszczeń ze stacjonarnych źródeł zanieczyszczenia. Określono efektywność fiskalną opodatkowania ekologicznego na Ukrainie. Zasugerowano sposoby udoskonalenia systemu opodatkowania ekologicznego na Ukrainie ze względu na doświadczenia UE.
EN
The article deals with various aspects of environmental taxation in Ukraine and the EU. The environmental taxes in Ukraine were divided according to the objects of taxation and compared with the list of environmental taxes in the EU. Some rates for pollutant emissions from stationary sources of pollution were reflected. The fiscal efficiency of environmental taxation in Ukraine was determined. The ways to improve the system of environmental taxation in Ukraine according to the EU experience were suggested.
RU
Статья посвящена различным аспектам экологического налогообложения на Украине и в ЕС. Выполнено разделение экологических налогов на Украине по субъектам налогообложения и проведено их сравнение с экологическими налогами, действующими в ЕС. В работе отражены некоторые самые высокие и самые низкие объемы выбросов от стационарных источников загрязнения. Определена фискальная эффективность системы экологического налогообложения на Украине. Представлены пути совершенствования системы экологического налогообложения на Украине с учетом опыта ЕС.
IT
L’articolo è dedicato a vari aspetti della tassazione ambientale in Ucraina e nell’UE. Le tasse ambientali in Ucraina sono state suddivise per entità fiscali e confrontate con le tasse ambientali nell’UE. Il documento riflette alcune quantità più alte e più basse di emissioni provenienti da fonti fisse di inquinamento. L’efficienza fiscale della tassazione ambientale in Ucraina è stata determinata. Hanno suggerito modi per migliorare il sistema di tassazione ambientale in Ucraina prendendo in considerazione l’esperienza dell’UE.
EN
The purpose of this article is to characterize as well as clarify the tax implications of foreign direct investment in the form of a permanent establishment. The tax burden is not a fixed amount determined by the business environment but rather can be influenced by the type of business structure created. A tax analysis of foreign direct investment (FDI) has revealed that the creation of a permanent establishment is more fiscally profitable than the creation of a separate legal entity (subsidiary). The income of a permanent establishment is not subject to economic double taxation. In addition, there is more flexibility with a permanent establishment in other areas of decision-making such as financing, internal dealings or the settlement of losses.
PL
Artykuł przedstawia główne założenia harmonizacji systemów podatkowych Unii Europejskiej oraz działań podjętych przez państwa Wspólnoty po wybuchu kryzysu finansowego w 2008 r. Autor dokonał przeglądu zmian przeprowadzonych w ramach stawek podatku VAT oraz CIT, a także przedstawił wybrane elementy prorodzinnej ulgi podatkowej w zakresie podatku PIT, która stała się formą złagodzenia obciążeń podatkowych dla niektórych gospodarstw domowych (głównie z powodu wzrostu stawek podatku VAT). Analiza obejmuje lata 2008-2016, czyli okres, który, co do zasady, należy uznać za moment wybuchu kryzysu oraz moment, w którym w większości państw UE kryzys ekonomiczny zakończył się lub uległ znacznemu złagodzeniu.
EN
The article presents the main assumptions of the harmonization of the tax systems of the European Union and the actions taken by the Member States after the outbreak of the 2008 financial crisis. The author reviewed the changes in VAT and CIT rates, and presented selected elements of the pro family tax relief for PIT, which has become a way of reducing of the tax burdens on some households.
EN
Since the year of introduction the personal income tax in Poland (1991), there has been implemented a number of changes in the structure of this tax. They could be justified as the natural 'aging of the law' phenomenon, and, moreover in achieving the objectives of social and economic policy. In a large part these changes take part of tax expenditures applied in the PIT. As a result, for most taxpayers income taxation has become non-transparent and too much complicated. At the same time tax constructions which reduce tax burden have a significant impact on budget revenues from personal income tax. The purpose of this article is to present the scope of tax expenditures in the Polish personal income tax, and to analyse their impact on the tax burden of taxpayers, as well as the budget revenue. The analysis was conducted based on the own authors' methodology for the identification of tax expenditures.
EN
Welfare states are today being made responsible for the poor prosperity of Western economies. High taxes, negative incentives for entrepreneurship or rigidity of labor market regulations create meager conditions for innovations and competitiveness and thus imply low growth rates. The rolling back of welfare state programs is therefore supposed to bring back good performance of the economies in mind. In reality evidence for such scenario is insufficient and welfare states are too embedded into modern econ¬omies to be removed with no consequences - both social and economic ones.
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