Book review Jakob Engberg – Anders-Christian Jacobsen – Jörg Ulrich (eds.), In Defense of Christianity. Early Christian Apologists (Early Christianity in the Context of Antiquity 15; Peter Lang: Frankfurt am Main et al., 2014). Pp. 263 + XI, 3 graphs. $72.95. ISBN 978-3-631-62383-1 (Hardcover)
After some passing considerations on the reception of Lewis in Romania, the present paper discusses the role played by Anglicanism in the late personal commitment of C.S. Lewis to the Christian faith, after years of atheism, scepticism, and agnosticism. It argues that in fact Anglicanism contributed very little to Lewis’s (re)conversion to Christianity. Furthermore, the paper agrees with the generally accepted idea that the particular calling that Lewis felt he had, that of being a Christian apologist, made him wary of being associated with the defence of any specific Christian tradition. In virtue of this special calling, Lewis also reacted quite strongly against certain aspects of Anglicanism, like, for instance, the ordination of women to priesthood, which he perceived as an obstacle to ecumenism and, implicitly, to an effective defence of the Christian faith in the public arena. In spite of all this, there is little doubt that Lewis has fully and unreservedly adopted Anglicanism as his preferred version of Christianity. From this particular stance, the life and ministry of C.S. Lewis made a huge public impact in the twentieth century and beyond. In light of the undeniable influence he had on the intellectual and religious scene in the last hundred years, one may ask not so much how Anglican was Lewis, but, rather, ‘why isn’t Anglicanism more like Lewis’.
The systematic theology of the 20th and 21st centuries has experienced revolutionary changes. The tremendous effort of theologians – which was already evident on the eve of Vatican II to experience order and confirmation during its deliberations – is still bearing fruit today. It seems that interpretations of the Council’s teaching have now become more problematic than the doctrine of Vatican II itself. One of the great figures of the theological world is Prof. Stanislaw Nagy, whose create efforts were honoured with a cardinalate, and to whom we are all indebted. Indeed, it is worth discovering his difficult path from the pre-council rigorous spiritual and intellectual formation to formal apologetics, thus paving the way for fundamental theology in Poland during the Communist period, to the ecumenical commitment of the times of freedom. In this respect, it is not without reason to speak of his ecumenical vision of the Church.
For many Americans, fundamentalist Christianity is associated with movements to promote biblical literalism and its key tenet, young-earth creationism. Fundamentalism has, for this and other reasons, garnered a widespread reputation for anti-intellectualism in America. However, an effort has been made within certain fundamentalist and evangelical groups to support literalist beliefs with rhetoric and data that imitate scientific discourse. This paper examines examples of science writing from three sources within popcultural apologetics: the bestselling book Evidence That Demands a Verdict: Life-Changing Truth for a Skeptical World; the fundamentalist apologetics ministry Answers in Genesis, and the evangelical parachurch organisation known as the Institute for Creation Research.
Philosophy is, in some sense, the self-reflection of general culture, and perpetual self-reflection has been a primary occupation of philosophy in the West. Consequently, self-reflection is of great importance for dividing philosophical fields into separate divisions, and philosophy of religion is no exception. This paper deals with a thinker who constructed a “philosophy of religion” as a discipline, but was overlooked by historians. The main achievements of François Para du Phanjas (1724-1797), who tried to offer a theory of religion in the theological context, have not lost their significance for today, especially his insights into epistemology of religious beliefs, his conception of “certainty” and classification of “religious evidences”, and the shortcomings of his analysis of “natural religion”.
For many years, Karaite exegesis was relatively unknown to numerous Biblical scholars. This situation has been changing with an increasing access to source materials. As a result, more and more Karaite exegetical treasures representing the trends of Karaite Judaism have come to the fore. Among them, there is the Commentary on the Book of Hosea by Yefet ben Eli, one of the most significant representatives of Karaism in the tenth century. Yefet ben Eli exhibits a remarkable knowledge of Hebrew etymology, which enables him to provide unique answers to the interpretative problems in the Masoretic Text. His apologetic concern for prospective Muslim readers of his commentary is also noteworthy. Although, in general, Karaism sought to concentrate on the literal sense of the Scripture, Yefet ben Eli does not shy away from recourses to rabbinic oral tradition. Nevertheless, his exegetical contribution remains unique, as clearly demonstrated by the selected examples from his Commentary.
In the article, the author analyzes the contemporary defense of Christianity and the civilization founded on it. It defines basic concepts such as apology and apologetics, shows their originality and transitivity, also points to the most important trends/trends of contemporary apology/apologetics and methods used by apologists.
St. John Bosco is one of the most famous priests of the nineteenth century Catholic Church. His educational mission, based on the so-called preventive system, has been of interest to many researchers. Another aspect of the Turin priest's activity is less well known. Living in an age of profound political and social change, as well as contestation of existing religious structures, he engaged in the defence of the Catholic doctrine and derived from it role of the Catholic Church, its structures and its mission. He was particularly concerned about signs of expansion of the Waldensian of community, active in Northern Italy. This was reflected in a number of his publications. They included textbooks, biographical works and fictional short stories. All contained similar content in the passages devoted to the origins and meaning of the Catholic Church. According Fr. Bosco, the identity of the Catholic Church was related in an obvious way to the mission and teachings of Christ. In his apologetics, he emphasized the continuity of the once-began Work of Redemption. Clearly, and almost in an indisputable way he emphasized the role of Peter and his successors. The reader was not so much to get to know the new trends and theological arguments, but rather to be convinced that retaining the currently existing order of the church was the only justifiable choice. However it must be emphasised that Fr. Bosco did not promote an aggressive and confrontational attitude but focused more on the positive presentation of his contemporary dogmatic and apologetic doctrine, emphasizing sacramental and spiritual potential contained in the Catholic Church.
PL
Święty Jan Bosko jest jednym z najbardziej znanych kapłanów Kościoła katolickiego XIX wieku. Prowadzona przez niego misja wychowawcza, opierająca się na tzw. systemie prewencyjnym, budziła i budzi zainteresowanie wielu badaczy. Mniej znany jest inny aspekt działalności Turyńczyka. Żyjąc w czasach głębokich przemian politycznych i społecznych, a także kontestacji istniejących struktur religijnych, zaangażował się w obronę doktryny katolickiej i wypływającą z niej rolę Kościoła katolickiego, jego struktur i spełnianej misji. Szczególny niepokój budziły w nim przejawy ekspansji, żywotnej w północnych Włoszech, wspólnoty waldensów. Znalazło to odbicie w wielu opracowanych przez niego publikacjach. Były to zarówno podręczniki, dzieła o charakterze biograficznym, jak i zwięzłe opowiadania. Wszystkie we fragmentach poświęconych genezie i znaczeniu Kościoła katolickiego zawierały podobne treści. Według ks. Bosko tożsamość Kościoła katolickiego związana jest w sposób oczywisty z misją i nauczaniem Chrystusa. W przyjmowanej argumentacji apologijnej akcentował fakt ciągłości raz rozpoczętego Dzieła Zbawczego. Przejrzyście i nieomal w sposób bezdyskusyjny podkreślał rolę Piotra i jego następców. Czytelnik miał nie tyle poznawać nowe prądy i argumenty teologiczne, ile raczej nabrać przekonania, że trwanie przy aktualnie istniejącym porządku kościelnym jest jedynym usprawiedliwionym wyborem. Należy jednak podkreślić, że ks. Bosko nie propagował wojowniczej postawy konfrontacyjnej, skupiał się raczej na pozytywnym wykładzie współczesnej mu doktryny dogmatycznej i apologetycznej, akcentując sakramentalny i duchowy potencjał zawarty w Kościele katolickim.
Tis article discusses the history of apologetics and fundamental theology as they have been taught in the Diocese of Siedlce’s Major Seminary since its founding in 1819 to the present day. Te author refers to historical sources and works in order to present pro-fles of the professors who taught these subjects, the trajectories of their academic careers, their teaching styles, as well as their academic achievements. Tis article also presents the textbooks and other materials that have been used in the seminary to teach these two disciplines that employ diferent methodological approaches but have the same academic aim, which is to study the credibility of Divine Revelation, meaning the fact that God ex-ists, His nature, and how He conveys Himself and remains within the Church.
The author covers the possibility of new investigation of the issue of the fall of man and original sin, taking into account the results of natural and historical sciences research over the origin of humankind. The author describes the current need to modernize the way of expressing some dogmatic formulas, to make them more appropriate for a modern man, of the the empirical and scientific paradigm of the euro-atlantic culture. Examples of modern interpretations of the christian doctrine about the fall of man, by writers who tried to reconcile the christian faith with the results of natural sciences are also put in evidence.
PL
Artykuł porusza kwestię możliwości nowych badań nad zagadnieniem grzechu pierworodnego z uwzględnieniem wyników badań nauk przyrodniczych i historycznych dotyczących początków rodzaju ludzkiego. Byłaby to odpowiedź na potrzebę uwspółcześnienia sposobu wyrażania treści dogmatycznych powstałą na skutek upowszechnienia się w kulturze euroatlantyckiej paradygmatu empiryczno-przyrodoznawczego.
For many years, Karaite exegesis had been relatively unknown to numerousBiblical scholars. This situation has been changing with an increasingaccess to source materials. As a result, more and more Karaite exegeticaltreasures representing the trends of Karaite Judaism have come to the fore.One of them is the Commentary to the Book of Hosea by Yefet ben Eli, oneof Karaism’s tenth century most significant representatives. Yefet ben Eliexhibits a remarkable knowledge of Hebrew etymology which enables himto provide unique answers to interpretative problems in the Masoretic Text.His apologetic concern for prospective Muslim readers of his commentary is also noteworthy. Although, in general, Karaism sought to concentrate onthe literal sense of Scripture, Yefet ben Eli does not shy away from recourseto rabbinic oral tradition. Still, his exegetical contribution remains unique,as selected examples from his Commentary clearly show.
The apologetic argument from the fulfilment of prophecies in Christ was a significant theme of theology for centuries. Nevertheless, after the Council, it practically disappeared in consequence of harsh criticism against the neo-scholastic form of its use. In order to consider the origins and value of this modern aversion, it seems reasonable to consider the apologetic writings of the patristic era, especially those of St Justin Martyr who was the first to pay such attention to a scriptural proof. The patristic form of the argument can demonstrate its significance and help to appreciate its theological potential.
PL
Używany w apologetyce argument ze spełnienia proroctw w Chrystusie był istotnym motywem w teologii przez wiele wieków. Mimo to po soborze praktycznie zniknął w konsekwencji surowej krytyki sposobu jego użycia w klasycznej apologetyce. W celu rozważenia przyczyn i uzasadnienia tej współczesnej niechęci wydaje się interesujące przyjrzeć się pismom apologetów epoki patrystycznej, zwłaszcza Justynowi Męczennikowi, który jako pierwszy tak poważnie zajął się argumentem skrypturystycznym. Patrystyczna forma argumentu może ukazać jego znaczenie oraz pomóc na nowo docenić jego teologiczną wartość.
Francis von Tessen-Węsierski was born on 22nd December in 1869. He came from the old noble Kashubian family who settled in the Eastern Pomerania (mainly in the area of Słupsk), in the Front Pomerania and in Ruggia. Francis’ father, Joseph, studied in Berlin where he later took up. In Berlin Francis completed his Matura (23rd March 1890) and after that he studied at the Theological Faculty of the University of Wrocław. He finished his Bachelor’s degree in 1894 and at the same year was ordained a priest. In the next year he earned a Habilitation and became a so called private docent (Privatdozent). Initially he taught the history of the Church and philosophy and also apologetics since 1897. In 1899 he was nominated an assistant professor of apologetics, next, in 1900 he was appointed a lecturer in pro-pedeutics of philosophy and apologetics; on 15 March the same year he obtained a Doctorate for the entirety of the academic work. In the same year he was offered to take the chair of the Dogmatics at the Theological Faculty of the Jagiellonian University. However, the prince-bishop, cardinal Jan Puzyna denied a canonical mission to Tessen- Węsierski on the basis of the insufficient knowledge of the Polish language by the candidate. Thus von Tessen-Węsierski stayed at the Theological Faculty of the University of Wrocław as an assistant professor, a lecturer of apologetics and propedeutics of philosophy. In 1933 when Adolf Hitler gained the power in Germany von Tessen-Węsierski was dismissed from the faculty for the lack of his “racial purity”. As a pensioner he lived in Szczecin. Nothing is known about his life during the war, nevertheless, it was noted that when the city was incorporated to Poland he was the first priest of Polish origin who stayed in Szczecin, and he died there on 7th January 1947. Theory of miracle is formulated by Tessen-Węsierski within the frame of apologetics, which is a theological discipline, however with regard to its goal-defense of religion- it significantly relies on philosophical argumentation in the process of explaining rationality of religion and related facts. Path to explanation of the phenomenon of miracle is- as Tessen- Węsierski claims- a carefully prepared definition. He starts his work from the cognitive and subjective analysis of miracle, what he calls a psychology of miracle. We may speak of miracle when something, some event or phenomenon, makes an impression on an observer. Source of that impression is comparison of that phenomenon to non-miracle facts. In the consequence it arises the need for explaining the cause of miracles. Following St. Thomas Aquinas Tessen- Węsierski links the phenomenon of miracle with astonishment (admiration). It- astonishment- takes place when we recognize the conditions (causes) and circumstances and we expect results which supposed to be derived from the given conditions and circumstances. But what happens is entirely different. It must have appeared the unknown cause (causa oculta), which influenced that usual natural process (result). Epistemological and psychological aspect of miracle leads us to metaphysics (ontology) of miracle, because finally it comes down to inquiry (inquisitio) on what caused the fact astonishing to us. In this point we need to turn to God’s Revelation, for only in its light we are able to explain that what transcends our nature. Theological competency is hence needed to cross from the negati-ve criterion: result could not have appeared if had been caused by the natural cause, to the statement that the result has its supernatural source. Tessen-Węsierski says that the proper perspective for that what is supernatural (Übernatürlichen/ supernaturale), is that what is natural. He reminds that Thomas Aquinas claims that in case of miraculous phenomena we deal with four factors: 1) intervention of God, 2) trespassing the natural order of things and 3) the result that differs from hitherto. Thus the main issue becomes the problem of God who is the principle of both: of that what is natural, as the Creator of beings, and of that what is supernatural when God exceeds with His power (Kraft) the order indicated by the act of creation. In solving this problem Tessen-Węsierski introduces a demarcation line between the nature and supernaturality. Thus, according to him, natural is that what derives from the God’s act of creation and that what is a certain order of existence and a mode of functioning of created beings. Supernatural is hence that what derives from God but exceeds the natural order of created things. Accordingly, the greatest supernatural thing takes place when human nature is adopted into the unity of the Divine Person in Jesus Christ, the unity called the hypostatic union. Further great “supernatural thing” (der supranaturalen Dinge) is vocation of man to cognize the Divine Essence and in general to community with God. What serves this purpose is grace and everything what accompanies (for example sacraments), and that is what constitutes further “supernatural thing”. Finally, supernatural fact is present in concrete, individual activity of God in some individual case. The latter one includes miracles- the subject of our interest- and private revelations.
In this article, the author made a reflection on the role of miracle in apologetics lecture before The Second Vatican Council. Looking for answers to this question, firstly the author presented the teaching of The First Vatican Council on miracle and its role. Then he analyzed several Polish academic textbooks of apologetics that had appeared before The Second Vatican Council in order to examine the function of miracle in relation to the Revelation.
PL
W niniejszym artykule autor podjął refleksję nad tym, jaka była rola cudu w wykładzie podręcznikowym apologetyki przed Vaticanum II. Szukając odpowiedzi na to pytanie, najpierw przedstawił nauczanie I Soboru Watykańskiego na temat cudu i jego roli. Następnie poddał analizie kilka polskojęzycznych podręczników akademickich do apologetyki, jakie pojawiły się przed II soborem watykańskim, aby zbadać w nich funkcję cudu w relacji do Objawienia.
Chociaż argumenty z projektu, mające przemawiać za istnieniem Boga, są czasem odrzucane, gdyż uznaje się je za apologetykę wykorzystującą argument z Boga w lukach wiedzy, to jednak powody ich kwestionowania, mające podstawę w historii nauki, filozofii, religii i pragmatyzmie, nie są aż tak silne, jak się to często insynuuje. Twierdzę, że korzystanie z wielorakich dostrzegalnych w świecie przyrody świadectw projektu oraz ich regularne uaktualnianie w celu uzgodnienia z nowymi ustaleniami, może stanowić rozsądne i przekonujące podejście do apologetyki.
EN
Although design arguments for the existence of God are sometimes dismissed as God of the Gaps apologetics, reasons for rejecting them based on the history of science, philosophy, religion, and pragmatism are not as compelling as is often implied. I argue that using multiple evidences of design in nature, with regular updates to accommodate new findings, can be a sound and convincing approach to apologetics.
Paul Tillich (1886-1965) was a modern theologian whose work remains very interesting today. His primary objective in teaching and writing was to make his understanding of Christianity relevant to the modern mind. This paper presents Tillich’s concept of theology. The key to understanding Tillich’s theology is what he calls the “method of correlation.” Theology must be an answering theology. Tillich called it apologetic theology. Christian answers should be offered in response to questions asked by modern man. It is an approach that correlates insights from Christian revelation with the issues raised by existential, psychological, and philosophical analysis. The theological answer is determined by the sources of theology, our experience, and the norm of theology. There are three main sources of systematic theology: the Bible, Church history, and the history of religion and culture. Experience is not a source but a medium through which the sources speak. And the norm of theology is the content of the biblical message. Tillich’s concept of theology has been directly influential on many catholic theologians as well (E. Schillebeeckx, J. Haught, T. Halík).
Paul Tillich (1886-1965) was a modern theologian whose work remains very interesting today. His primary objective in teaching and writing was to make his understanding of Christianity relevant to the modern mind. This paper presents Tillich’s concept of theology. The key to understanding Tillich’s theology is what he calls the “method of correlation.” Theology must be an answering theology. Tillich called it apologetic theology. Christian answers should be offered in response to questions asked by modern man. It is an approach that correlates insights from Christian revelation with the issues raised by existential, psychological, and philosophical analysis. The theological answer is determined by the sources of theology, our experience, and the norm of theology. There are three main sources of systematic theology: the Bible, Church history, and the history of religion and culture. Experience is not a source but a medium through which the sources speak. And the norm of theology is the content of the biblical message. Tillich’s concept of theology has been directly influential on many catholic theologians as well (E. Schillebeeckx, J. Haught, T. Halík).
In modern theology, the concept of the deposit of faith is rarely used. The aim of the article is to show its importance in maintaining the integrity of the transmission of the apostolic faith of the Church. However, it is essential because of the continuity and identity of the apostolic teaching received from Christ and transmitted to the Church. It allows us to define the limits of theological pluralism. In the development of theology, it is associated with apologetics, and its renaissance is conducive to in-depth studies of its importance for demonstrating the apostolic character of the contemporary Church teaching. An important element of this concept is the trust shown by the depositor (Christ) to the depositary (the Church), which obliges him to keep the deposit intact. Hence follows the great responsibility of the whole Church and of every Catholic as depositary. The deposit of faith, understood as the “sum of salvific goods” (the sum of noetic and ontic content), is sacred in two ways: it is a gift of God who reveals himself and is kept in the temple, which is every believer in Christ. It is a reservoir of unchanging dogmas and a “place” to look for answers to more and more inquisitive questions arising from the constantly changing conditions of human life. The deposit of faith is a reality that can effectively help in the fight against the contemporary crisis of Catholic faith and morality and even the identity of the Church itself.
PL
We współczesnej teologii pojęcie depozytu wiary jest rzadko wykorzystywane. Celem artykułu jest wykazanie jego doniosłości w zachowaniu integralności przekazu apostolskiej wiary Kościoła. Pojęcie depozytu jest istotne ze względu na ciągłość i tożsamość nauczania apostolskiego, przyjętego od Chrystusa i przekazanego Kościołowi. Pozwala bowiem dokładniej określić granice pluralizmu teologicznego. W rozwoju teologii jest wiązane z apologetyką, a jej renesans sprzyja pogłębionym studiom nad jego znaczeniem dla wykazywania apostolskiego charakteru współczesnego nauczania Kościoła.Istotnym elementem tego pojęcia jest zaufanie okazywane przez deponenta (Chrystusa) depozytariuszowi (Kościołowi), które zobowiązuje do zachowania depozytu w stanie nienaruszonym. Stąd wynika wielka odpowiedzialność całego Kościoła i każdego katolika jako depozytariusza. Depozyt wiary rozumiany jako „suma dóbr zbawczych” (suma treści noetycznych i ontycznych) ma charakter sakralny w dwojakim znaczeniu: jest darem objawiającego się Boga i jest przechowywany w świątyni, którą jest każdy wierzący w Chrystusa. Stanowi rezerwuar niezmiennych dogmatów i „miejsce” do poszukiwania odpowiedzi na coraz to bardziej dociekliwe pytania wynikające ze zmieniających się nieustannie uwarunkowań życia człowieka. Depozyt wiary jest tą rzeczywistością, która może skutecznie pomóc w walce ze współczesnym kryzysem wiary i moralności katolickiej, a nawet tożsamości samego Kościoła.
Between the year 1925 and the outbreak of World War II, the Diocese of Częstochowa had 473 priests. Apart from their pastoral duties, some priests engaged in writing. They were educated for that purpose, and some of them had had previous authorship experiences in other Dioceses. The most prolific were priests coming from the Diocese of Włocławek. Essays and papers by the Częstochowa Diocese priests were published by university and Diocese publishing houses. Clerical publishing was strongly supported by the Diocese leaders, such as Bishop Teodor Kubina, who emphasized the importance of these activities. The publications in question concerned a variety of issues and domains. Most works concerned theology. Some of these were strictly scientific papers, others were of more popular character, yet others were targeted at a wider public. The publications were in Polish and Latin. Apart from theology, some priests wrote texts in the field of humanities: literature, documentaries and journalism. Altogether, in the years 1925-1939, at least 57 priests were active writers, which equalled 12% of the total of the clergy in the Diocese.
Between the year 1925 and the outbreak of World War II, the Diocese of Częstochowa had 473 priests. Apart from their pastoral duties, some priests engaged in writing. They were educated for that purpose, and some of them had had previous authorship experiences in other Dioceses. The most prolific were priests coming from the Diocese of Włocławek. Essays and papers by the Częstochowa Diocese priests were published by university and Diocese publishing houses. Clerical publishing was strongly supported by the Diocese leaders, such as Bishop Teodor Kubina, who emphasized the importance of these activities. The publications in question concerned a variety of issues and domains. Most works concerned theology. Some of these were strictly scientific papers, others were of more popular character, yet others were targeted at a wider public. The publications were in Polish and Latin. Apart from theology, some priests wrote texts in the field of humanities: literature, documentaries and journalism. Altogether, in the years 1925-1939, at least 57 priests were active writers, which equalled 12% of the total of the clergy in the Diocese.
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