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EN
This article provides information about the exchange rate risk in companies. At the beginning the definitions of risk and exchange rate risk are provided. Next, the article includes a short analysis of the main financial instruments that can reduce those risks – forward/futures contract, option and SWAP contract. Besides many positive features of those instruments, the inappropriate usage of them can cause many serious problems. For this reason a reader will find herein not only a list of positive attributes of those instruments but also a description of their negative impact on entrepreneurs in the year 2008. The final part shows that although the described event took place five years ago, till now the market has not managed to solve problems caused by toxic derivatives and entrepreneurs still do not trust in this sort of exchange rate risk reduction possibilities.
EN
The paper describes the development of the derivatives market and compares it with the development of the real economy. Based on official data the paper describes how the derivatives market has significantly increased its volume of trading, mainly after the abolishment of the Glass-Steagal Act. The growing volume of the derivatives market also significantly contributed to the global financial crisis. This paper also compares the growth of the global nominal and real gross domestic product with the pace of growth of the overall derivatives market, but mainly the over-the-counter market. Based on preliminary findings, the paper came to the conclusion that it is critical to implement all the requisite measures in order to eliminate non-transparent transactions with certain derivatives products in order to put the global economy on a sustainable, solid and balanced economic growth path.
EN
The author presents issues in defining derivatives in both community and Polish law brought about by the fast development of the market for these instruments and the Commission’s reluctance to take a universal approach to defining them, which would depend on a definition that included all the common characteristics of derivatives, resulting from their financial-economic specifics and not using a closed catalogue of derivatives or the underlying instruments. Such a policy may lead to problems with transposing EU law on the financial instruments market on member states, including Poland.
EN
In continuation to one of my previous papers (Kształtowanie się cen opcji indeksowych a ich wycena na podstawie modelu Blacka-Scholesa), where the research problem to what extent pricing of option using theoretical models is tangent to the behaviour of market option prices in Polish conditions was scrutinized, in the present work it is verified whether there exist significant differences between the behaviour of market option prices in relation to option prices resulting from the Black-Scholes model during periods of a bull and bear market. In order to make those comparisons, the parameters of the lines of regression describing the dependence of market prices of options for index WIG20 on their prices resulting from B-S model were calculated. On the basis of these calculations, it is possible to say how market prices resemble prices resulting from the model. The research was conducted for two periods of similar length, assuming that between 20 September 2004 and 18 March 2005 we had a bull market and during the days between 1 August 2008 and 20 March 2009 the market was bearish.
EN
The financial crisis has demonstrated that OTC derivatives increase uncertainty in times of market stress and pose risks to financial stability. The main purpose of the EMIR regulation is to reduce these risks and improve the transparency of derivative contracts. The main obligations are: central clearing for certain classes of OTC derivatives, application of risk mitigation techniques for non-centrally cleared OTC derivatives and reporting to trade repositories.
PL
Artykuł nie zawiera abstraktu w języku polskim
EN
Basics of structural characteristics of contemporary Polish word formationsThis article is an attempt to reconstruct the formative mechanisms of contemporary Polish. The object of observation are the Polish formatives, which are motivated from the synchronous point of view. Establishing of the inventory of formatives is a result of multistage logical division based on the following (structural) dichotomy criteria: – on the first stage: quality (alternate) and quantitative (reduction) operations transform the theme of base in the theme of derivatives, – on the other stages: type of segmental elements added to the theme of derivatives.
EN
This article addresses the question of Old English alternations with a view to identifying instances of allomorphic variation attributable to the loss of motivation and the subsequent morphologization of alternations. The focus is on the strong verb and its derivatives, in such a way that the alternations in which the strong verb partakes can be predicted on the basis of phonological principles, whereas allomorphic variation with respect to the strong verb base is unpredictable. Out of 304 derivational paradigms based on strong verbs and comprising 4,853 derivatives, 478 instances have been found of phonologically motivated vocalic alternations. The conclusion is reached that the most frequent alternations are those that have /a/ as source and those with /y/ as target, because /a/ is the point of departure of i-mutation and /y/ its point of arrival. Sixteen instances of allomorphic variation have also been found, of which /e/ ~ /eo/, /e/ ~ /ea/ and /i/ ~ /e/ are relatively frequent.
EN
Gambling, often identified as some sort of speculation, was from the beginning one of the factors contributing to the development of modern financial markets. The author of this paper, however, is not going to analyze the issue of gambling on the classical stock-exchange market, but is going to focus on two groups of transactions related with the financial market: derivatives and virtual currencies. Derivatives are some sort of financial instruments, characterized by a very high level of randomness and risks, which legal status is not clear. It is important to underline that there are some opinions postulating the recognition of this group of instruments simply as a game or a bet within the meaning of the polish Act of 19 November 2009. The second component of the article – virtual currency – which can be regarded as a hidden form of gambling growing in the Internet, is also a legal construction that escapes both from the national and international regulations. This article, on the example of chosen financial instruments, is going to verify the thesis supposing that the issue of gambling is reflected also in selected forms of transactions in the financial market, encouraging potential participants by the element of randomness and a high level of risk, which makes these transactions very similar to classical gambling.
EN
Our study features a financial institute facing credit risk. Hedging credit risk by offsetting an open position with an opposite one in the financial market is important for financial intermediaries, which are concerned with both the profitability and risk of their operations. As risk management is crucial for the financial institute, the issues of how it is optimally determined and how it adjusts to changes in the financial environment deserve closer scrutiny. We extend the analysis of hedging with financial instruments against credit risk to the case of multiple types of credit risk. We show that standard results on the optimal hedge ratio and risk management effectiveness in the case of one single source of credit risk to carry over a loan portfolio in a non-trivial but intuitive way. While we focus on credit risk and credit derivatives, our analysis can be easily applied to other financial assets, which can be traded in futures market.
EN
There is a huge variety of derivatives on the Polish financial market (i.a. options and futures on stocks or indices). Options offer a lot of possibilities in the creation of advanced strategies. They can be used during variable market trends, in changeable circumstances, and are dependent on forecasted price level and volatility. The aim of the article is to investigate what was the rate of return of two options strategies: long straddle and short straddle. The research hypothesis was formulated that, in the years 2005–2015, strategies which were used on the assumption of the low volatility of the WIG20’s value, offered higher rates of return than other strategies. In the empirical research, quotations from the Warsaw Stock Exchange have been utilized. In the period given, higher profitability was obtained by selling options.
EN
The aim of the article is to study simple nominal derivatives created from the acronym of the Polish political party Prawo i Sprawiedliwość (Law and Justice). In some forms of media discourse, these derivatives function as insults and are among many instruments of hate speech.
PL
W pracy przedstawiona została analiza wybranych aspektów zarządzania ryzykiem w przedsiębiorstwie w świetle zachodzących procesów transformacji społeczno-gospodarczej na przełomie XX i XXI wieku w Polsce. W takich warunkach niezbędna jest budowa efektywnego systemu zarządzania ryzykiem w przedsiębiorstwie, ukierunkowanego na tworzenie wartości. Niezbędne dla rozwoju systemów zarządzania ryzykiem w polskich przedsiębiorstwach jest zwiększenie dostępności narzędzi ograniczania ryzyka oraz podwyższenie poziomu wiedzy na temat tych instrumentów. W świetle zachodzących przemian społeczno-gospodarczych, wdrażanie systemów zarządzania ryzykiem jest warunkiem koniecznym utrzymania, a także poprawy pozycji konkurencyjnej polskich przedsiębiorstw. Rozwój rynku instrumentów pochodnych jest niezbędny z punktu widzenia utrzymania konkurencyjności polskiego rynku w kontekście integracji z Unią Europejską. Dostępność szerokiego wachlarza instrumentów pochodnych dla podmiotów gospodarczych stanowi niezbędny warunek upowszechniania systemów zarządzania ryzykiem, a w konsekwencji poprawy ich pozycji rynkowej. W świetle zachodzących przemian społeczno-gospodarczych, wdrażanie systemów zarządzania ryzykiem jest warunkiem koniecznym utrzymania lub poprawy pozycji konkurencyjnej polskich przedsiębiorstw.
EN
The market of derivative instruments is the youngest segment of the Polish financial market. On the floors of the Stock Exchange in Warsaw derivatives debuted on 16 January 1998, thus almost after 7 years of the operation of the Polish public market. An analysis of the development of this market segment for the last 10 years can incline us to formulate several equivocal conclusions. On the floors of the Stock Exchange in Warsaw in the years 1998-2010, there appeared both futures contracts, index units and financial options. One must give credit to some attempts to differentiate the arrangement of basic instruments that are available to investors; they include shares, indexes, currencies, and interest rates. Similarly, it is impossible not to notice dominance of the derivative market quoted on the floor of GPW SA over the share market in relation to the turnover value. All this evidences without any doubt that development of the exchange market of derivative instruments in Poland is proceeding. On the other hand, however, one should not forget about the phenomena that can evidence occurrence of some weaknesses in development of the said instruments on the regulated markets. Such weaknesses may include, for example, a slow pace of derivative development except for futures contracts for WIG20. Another threat for development of the Polish regulated market of derivative instruments is the structure of the market participants with the dominance of individual investors, which, in connection with dominance of futures contracts for index WIG20 in the turnover, means that transaction on GPW SA are primarily of the speculative character. A barrier for development of the derivative instruments market may be an opinion, which burdens it, that such instruments are the riskiest instruments of the financial market, responsible for escalation of the crisis on the global financial markets. Investments on the capital market are associated with risk. It is suggested erroneously, however, that risk is included in the market itself. It must be stressed that risk depends on the behaviour of a person who realizes an investment. We must remember, however, that the strongest development catalyst of the regulated market of derivative instruments in Poland is possibilities that they give. Derivative instruments may be the construction basis of hedging strategies, which in the past constituted the main premise for development of the regulated derivative market on the global stock exchanges, starting since the 1970s. The specific construction of derivative instruments makes them the most popular tool used in the comprehensive financial engineering, first of all, in construction of investment strategies. Moreover, the said instruments may be used in arbitrage strategies created on the border between the futures market and the cash market. To sum up, the development level of the regulated market of derivative instruments in Poland should be considered as too low. Except for indexed futures contracts (the 4th place among European stock exchanges in relation to the turnover value) the exchange market is featured by a low level of development in relation to differentiation of the offered instruments and their liquidity. Further development of the Polish market of derivative instruments may, in a perspective of several years, facilitate creation of an extended platform of risk management instruments, used both by exchange investors and by businesses.
EN
The article discusses issues related to financial instruments. In the period of a significant increase in fuel and energy prices, the author decided to examine whether companies listed on the Warsaw Stock Exchange from the fuel, gas, and energy sectors hedge against exchange rate fluctuations. The article also verifies whether financial and hedging instruments constitute a significant part of the assets of the surveyed companies. It was also checked whether the audited companies apply hedge accounting and whether changes in the value of hedging instruments significantly affect their financial results. In the last phase of the research, the completeness of disclosures regarding financial instruments and derivatives in the consolidated financial statements of the audited entities was verified. The following research methods were used in the article: literature review, analysis of legal acts related to financial instruments and the verification of consolidated financial statements of companies from the fuel, gas, and energy sectors listed on the Warsaw Stock Exchange.
PL
W artykule omówiono zagadnienia związane z instrumentami finansowymi. W okresie znaczącego wzrostu cen paliw i energii autor postanowił zbadać, czy spółki notowane na Giełdzie Papierów Wartościowych w Warszawie (GPW) z sektora paliwowo-gazowego oraz energetycznego zabezpieczają się przed wahaniami kursów walutowych. W artykule zweryfikowano również, czy instrumenty finansowe i zabezpieczające stanowią istotną część majątku badanych spółek. Sprawdzono także, czy badane spółki stosują rachunkowość zabezpieczeń oraz czy zmiany wartości instrumentów zabezpieczających w istotny sposób wpływają na ich wynik finansowy. W ostatniej fazie badań przeanalizowano kompletność ujawnień w zakresie instrumentów finansowych oraz instrumentów pochodnych w skonsolidowanych sprawozdaniach finansowych badanych podmiotów. W artykule wykorzystano następujące metody badawcze: przegląd literatury przedmiotu, analizę aktów prawnych związanych z instrumentami finansowymi oraz weryfikację skonsolidowanych sprawozdań finansowych spółek z sektora paliwowo-gazowego i energetycznego notowanych na GPW.
EN
Businesses are prone to various risks resulting from changing conditions of the world’s economy. It can be said that all decisions made in companies about future and steps taken to achieve their goals are fraught with risk. Enterprises selling or purchasing products and services on foreign markets run the risk related to the foreign exchange rate fluctuations. The rational foreign exchange risk management by means of derivatives (forward contracts, futures contracts, swaps, and other currency options) is able to cover a company against significant losses. By means of the foreign exchange risk management model based on currency options, the company importing products from China and offering them in the Western Europe is able to mitigate the negative impact of changes on the forex market completely.
PL
Przedsiębiorstwa dokonujące sprzedaży czy też zakupu towaru i usług na rynkach zagranicznych zmuszone są do ponoszenia dodatkowego ryzyka, którym jest ryzyko związane z wahaniami na rynku walutowym. Racjonalne zarządzanie ryzykiem kursowym przy użyciu instrumentów pochodnych (tj. kontraktu forward, futures, swap oraz opcje walutowe) jest w stanie zabezpieczyć przedsiębiorstwa przed znaczącymi stratami. Poprzez zastosowanie modelu zarządzania ryzykiem walutowym przy użyciu opcji walutowych, przedsiębiorstwo importujące towar z Chin a następnie sprzedające ten produkt na rynek Europy Zachodniej może całkowicie zniwelować wpływ niekorzystnych zmian na rynku walutowym.
PL
Celem niniejszego artykułu jest identyfikacja obszarów działalności przedsiębiorstw niefinansowych wykazujących w swoich sprawozdaniach finansowych instrumenty pochodne oraz analiza wykorzystania tych instrumentów przez wybrane przedsiębiorstwa notowane na giełdzie. Ponadto analizie poddano korelacje pomiędzy wartościami instrumentów pochodnych wykazanych w bilansach tych przedsiębiorstw i wybranymi wielkościami ekonomicznymi je charakteryzującymi. Spośród 199 przedsiębiorstw prowadzących działalność gospodarczą w obszarze zidentyfikowanym na podstawie danych GUS wyselekcjonowano 141 spełniających kolejne kryteria, a mianowicie osiągających roczne przychody powyżej 100 mln zł i sporządzających sprawozdania finansowe według standardów MSSF. Analiza ta została przeprowadzona na podstawie danych pochodzących ze sprawozdań finansowych badanych podmiotów zaczerpniętych z bazy EMIS. Wyniki przeprowadzonych badań zostały porównane z danymi publikowanymi przez GUS.
EN
The purpose of this article is to identify the area of operation of non-financial corporations displaying derivative instruments in their financial statements and to analyze the use of these instruments by selected listed companies. In addition, the analysis included correlations between the value of derivative instruments shown in the balance sheets of these enterprises and selected economic values. Out of 199 enterprises conducting business activity in the area identified on the basis of statistics data, 141 were selected meeting subsequent criteria, including: revenues over PLN 100 million and preparation of financial statements in accordance with IFRS standards in 2016. The analysis was based on data from the financial reports of the surveyed entities taken from the EMIS database. The results of the conducted research were compared with the data published by the Central Statistical Office.
EN
The aim of the research, the results of which are presented in this paper, was to determine how agricultural derivatives imply financial results of the company dealing with wheat trading. The article consists of two parts. The first one presents possibility for applying agricultural derivatives in Poland. The second part contains the results of the research demonstrating the impact of agricultural derivatives on price hedging in the course of wheat trading based on chosen company.
PL
Celem badań, których wyniki zostały przedstawione w pracy, było określenie, jaki wpływ mają zastosowane instrumenty pochodne na wyniki finansowe przedsiębiorstwa handlowego w obrocie zbożem. Artykuł składa się z dwóch części. W pierwszej przybliżono zagadnienia dotyczące wykorzystania instrumentów pochodnych na rynku rolnym w Polsce. Druga część zawiera wyniki badań dotyczących możliwości wykorzystania zabezpieczenia ceny transakcji w handlu zbożem.
EN
The article presents a problem of proper hedging strategy in expected utility model when forward contracts and options strategies are available. We consider a case of hedging when an investor formulates his own expectation on future price of underlying asset. In this paper we propose the way to measure effectiveness of hedging strategy, based on optimal forward hedge ratio. All results are derived assuming a constant absolute risk aversion utility function and a Black-Scholes framework.
PL
Publikacja poświęcona jest prezentacji dwóch ważnych instrumentów inżynierii finansowej, które jako interesujące narzędzia hybrydowe mogą zainteresować Czytelników. Fundusze mezzanine posiadają wyraźnie zalety w porównaniu np. z kredytem bankowym i mogą stanowić znakomite uzupełnienie kapitału własnego i kredytu bankowego. Fundusze te mogą być użyteczne dla samorządów terytorialnych i MSP, zwłaszcza w sytuacji, w której struktury te będą zabiegać o fundusze Unii Europejskiej, mimo braku zdolności kredytowej i wymaganych przez banki zabezpieczeń na aktywach przedsiębiorstwa i samorządu. W sytuacji kryzysu oraz braku kapitału własnego na tzw. udział własny, fundusze mezzanine są znakomitym rozwiązaniem, choć rzeczywiście mało znanym. Kapitał mezzanine jest hybrydową formą finansowania, która łączy cechy kapitału własnego i obcego. Jest to więc forma długotrwałej pożyczki, która w przeciwieństwie do kredytu bankowego jest spłacana jednorazowo w całości po spłacie kredytu terminu kredytowania. W praktyce dawca kapitału w okresie spłacania kredytu inwestycyjnego otrzymuje jedynie odsetki. Za nieco inne źródło kapitału uznaje się fundusze hedgingowe, które należy rozumieć jako instytucje zbiorowego inwestowania. Uznaje się je jednak głównie zawyrafinowane wehikuły finansowe, stosujące nowoczesne strategie inwestycyjne. W praktyce fundusze hedgingowe stosowane są przez przedsiębiorstwa w fazie rozwoju, dotyczyć jednak mogą osób fizycznych, które pragną pomnożyć swoje kapitały za pomocą zarządzających funduszem hedgingowym. Cechą funduszy hedgingowych jest możliwość osiągania zysków bez względu na bieżącą koniunkturę na rynkach finansowych, a także aktualną sytuację gospodarczą. W rzeczywistości fundusze te, dzięki swojej strategii inwestycyjnej, przeprowadzają transakcje arbitrażowe gwarantujące zysk bez ryzyka lub z niewielkim ryzykiem, który wynika z z różnicy cen danego instrumentu finansowego na różnych rynkach. Oczywiście w publikacji zaprezentowano podstawy korzystania z różnych i wyszukanych instrumentów pochodnych, gry na rynku kontraktów terminowych, sprzedaży i kupna surowców i towarów, ekspansji na globalnym rynku (w tym także na rynkach wschodzących), uczestniczenie w fuzjach i przejęciach, stosowanie krótkiej sprzedaży itd. Zaprezentowano Czytelnikom również krotką historię zastosowań funduszy mezzanine i funduszy hedgingowych, bowiem instrumenty te liczą sobie niewiele ponad 45 lat, w tym w Polsce około 35 lat.
EN
The publication is devoted to presentation of important instruments of financial engineering which, as interesting hybrid tools, may be of interest for Readers. The mezzanine funds have clear benefits vis-à-vis, for example, bank credit and may be an excellent supplement for equity capital and bank credit. These funds may be useful for territorial self-governments and SMEs, particularly in the situation where those structures will apply for the EU funds, despite lack of creditworthiness and the required by banks asset-based securities of the enterprise and self-government. In the situation of crisis and lack of equity capital for the so-called own financial contribution, the mezzanine funds are an excellent solution albeit really recondite. Mezzanine capital is a hybrid form of financing, which combines the features of equity and outside capital. Hence, this is the form of long-term loan which, contrary to bank credit, is repaid once in full, upon repayment of the credit over the term of loan. In practice, the capital provider over the period of repayment of investment capital receives only interest. As a bit different source of capital are considered hedge funds which should be understood as collective investing institutions. However, they are mainly considered as sophisticated financial vehicles applying modern investment strategies. In practice, hedge funds are applied by enterprises in the developmental phase, though they may concern natural persons who want to increase their capital with the help of hedge fund managers. The feature of hedge funds is an opportunity to derive profits disregarding the current condition in the financial markets as well as the current business condition. In reality, these funds, owing to their investment strategy, carry out arbitrage transactions guaranteeing profit without risk or with minor risk which issues from the difference of prices of a given financial instrument in various markets. Of course, in the article, there are presented the base for use of different and sophisticated derivatives, game in the futures market, sale and purchase of commodities and goods, expansion in the global market (including also the emerging markets), participation in mergers and acquisitions, use of short selling, etc. The Readers are also presented with a concise history of applications of mezzanine and hedge funds as these instruments are a little bit more than 45 years old, while in Poland – about 35 years.
19
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Czy warto być homo pecuniosus?

75%
EN
The author refers to the defi nition of homo pecuniosus set by prof. Janina Filek and analyzes the scope of it in the context of business ethics. As a practitioner, he gives several examples taken from the real life of derivatives trading with different consequences of ethical or non-ethical behaviour. The final conclusion is that not only so called financiers, but all of us are homo pecuniosus and it may be a valuable concept when treated in a long-term sense.
Praktyka Teoretyczna
|
2017
|
vol. 25
|
issue 3
176-193
EN
The derivatives market, widely understood as a primary cause of a recent global crisis, is commonly seen as a space of purely speculative movement of fictitious capital. In the course of the 20th century, a theory of quantifiable risk (as opposed to unquantifiable uncertainty) has been developed, giving capital, together with a series of deregulations from 1970s onwards, a new toolset for managing the precarious nature of value production: namely, derivatives, a financial instrument enabling the trading of risk exposure abstracted from the assets themselves. Taking Marx’s notion of “fictitious capital” with its irreducibility to a mere “casino for capital” as a starting point, we aim to present an interpretation of the derivatives market as an apparatus of risk management that is strictly connected to the production of surplus value. The functional character of derivatives is seen as: 1. a means of subordination of the working class in a form of debt relation and secondary extraction of surplus value as credit interest, 2. technological advancement of value redistribution among the capitalist class and stabilization of income flow. Both phenomena are tied to the inherent contradictions of the derivatives market that are potentially harmful to the very process of capitalist accumulation.
PL
Rynek derywatów, przez wiele osób uznawany za podstawową przyczynę globalnego kryzysu ostatnich lat, często interpretowany jest jako przestrzeń czysto spekulacyjnego ruchu fikcyjnego kapitału. W dwudziestym wieku zostało wypracowane teoretyczne ujęcie pomiaru kwantyfikowalnego ryzyka (w opozycji do niemierzalnej niepewności) dając kapitałowi, również dzięki serii deregulacji prawnych postępujących od lat siedemdziesiątych, nowe narzędzia do zarządzania niestabilnym z zasady procesem produkcji wartości – derywaty, czyli instrumenty finansowe umożliwiające handel ekspozycją na ryzyko, wyabstrahowaną od samych aktywów. Biorąc za punkt wyjścia Marksowskie pojęcie „kapitału fikcyjnego” i akcentując jego nieredukowalność do funkcji „kasyna kapitalistów”, przedstawiamy interpretację rynku instrumentów pochodnych jako aparatu zarządzania ryzykiem ściśle powiązanego z produkcją wartości dodatkowej. Funkcjonalny charakter derywatów polega więc na 1) rozwoju technologii redystrybucji wartości dodatkowej wśród klasy kapitalistycznej i stabilizacji strumienia dochodów, 2) podporządkowaniu klasy pracującej poprzez relację długu i wtórną ekstrakcję wartości dodatkowej jako procentu z kredytu. Oba z tych zjawisk generują jednocześnie wynikające z samej zasady działania rynku derywatów sprzeczności niebezpieczne dla procesu akumulacji kapitalistycznej.
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