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EN
Inspections of corpses or human remains that have been buried should be carried out in close cooperation with police officers, a forensic doctor and archaeologists appointed as experts. Archaeological methods are able to accurately reconstruct the course of the burial itself and capture valuable evidence that can help in the reconstruction of the perpetrator’s modus operandi and help to determine the identity of the victim.
EN
The article deals with a little-known subject of the Italian Military Cemetery in Wrocław with the graves of soldiers from World War I. It is the only preserved Italian necropolis from that period in Poland. It was established in the 1920s in the District of Grabiszyn at the Italian Government’s suggestion. The cemetery includes the collective graves of Italian POWs who had died in German captivity in 1917–1919. The opening ceremony of this necropolis, together with its consecration, took place on November 2nd, 1928. The soldiers’ graves are situated in four sections located around a central point. They are also commemorated in the form of an obelisk. Between 1943 and 1945 another 48 victims of World War II were buried, among them some Italian POWs and a number of civilians. In 1957 their remains were exhumed and transferred to the Italian Military Cemetery in Warsaw. The only graves which remain in Wrocław were the graves of the World War I soldiers, among others of those who fought at Caporetto, the battle which started their prisoners’ way, finally ending in Polish Wroclaw.
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EN
This article proposes to include in the literary studies the body of texts written by the Christian female mystics, whose accounts have so far been the domain of theological discourse. The perspective offered here focuses on the bodily categories contained in the works of women mystics from the 19th and 20th c. such as: Leonia Nastał, Faustyna Kowalska, Zofia Nosko, Roberta Babiak, Rozalia Celakówna, all of whom qualify under the category of experiential or affective mysticism. The present articles focuses on two notions, i.e. on the one hand, the typology of describing the bodily experience in the mystical text, and on the other, the biographical features. The latter opens up a path towards the anthropological and cultural dimension in the analysis of mystical writings with a particular focus on the issue of illness, self-mortification and exhumation.
EN
The search for invisible and clandestine burial places of victims of wars and totalitarian crimes is a very difficult task. Research and exhumation teams use various methods to help locate burial places. According to the experience of our team, one of the best sources of information about burials are archival and contemporary aerial photographs. During World War II, aerial photography became one of the most important tools for warfare reconnaissance. For this reason, huge numbers of aerial photographs are currently available, in which the victim’s burial sites have been accidentally recorded. Aerial photographs are often helpful not in the direct identification of graves, but in the reconstruction of topographies of individual objects within a defined period of time, and thus, indirectly, in the location of graves. The aim of the study was to demonstrate the usefulness of historical aerial, satellite and drone photographs in the process of searching for the remains of victims of armed conflicts and totalitarian crimes. The paper presents the experience gained in the course of research projects carried out.
PL
Poszukiwanie niewidocznych i tajnych miejsc pochówku ofiar wojen i zbrodni systemów totalitarnych jest bardzo trudnym zadaniem. Zespoły badawcze i ekshumacyjne stosują różne metody pomagające w lokalizacji miejsc pochówku. Według doświadczeń naszego zespołu jednym z najlepszych źródeł informacji o pochówkach są archiwalne i współczesne zdjęcia lotnicze. Fotografia lotnicza w czasie II wojny światowej stała się jednym z najważniejszych narzędzi służących rozpoznaniu działań wojennych. Z tego względu obecnie mamy ogromną liczbę zdjęć lotniczych, na których przypadkowo utrwalono miejsca pochówków ofiar. Zdjęcia lotnicze są często pomocne nie w bezpośredniej identyfikacji grobów, ale w rekonstrukcji topografii poszczególnych obiektów w określonym czasie, a dzięki temu pośrednio w lokalizacji grobów. Celem badania było zademonstrowanie przydatności historycznych zdjęć lotniczych, zdjęć satelitarnych lub wykonanych przez drony w procesie poszukiwania szczątków ofiar konfliktów zbrojnych i zbrodni systemów totalitarnych. Praca przedstawia doświadczenia zebrane w trakcie zrealizowanych projektów badawczych.
PL
W korespondencji pomiędzy namiestnikiem Bitynii i Pontu w latach 111–113 n.e. oraz cesarzem Trajanem znalazł się wątek związany z dopuszczalnością ekshumacji oraz przenosin zwłok do innego miejsca pochówku. Pliniusz, który był zaznajomiony z rzymskimi praktykami w tym zakresie, zwrócił się do cesarza z prośbą o radę, jaki model postępowania ma przyjąć odnośnie do mieszkańców prowincji. Odpowiedź władcy utrzymała w mocy dotychczasową praktykę polegającą na dopuszczalności przeniesienia zwłok w inne miejsce jedynie wówczas, kiedy istniała po temu słuszna przyczyna (zwłaszcza, kiedy groby były zdewastowane lub zagrożone). Rozstrzygnięcie Trajana wpłynęło na decyzje kolejnych władców zabierających głos w tej sprawie.
EN
In the correspondence between the governor of Bithynia-Pontus and emperor Trajan in the years 111–113 one can find an exchange on whether to allow a buried body to be exhumed and transported to be buried in a different place. Pliny, who was familiar with Roman practices in this respect, turned to the emperor seeking advice on what policy he should adopt with regard to the inhabitants of the province. The emperor’s answer upheld the common practice that it was possible to move a body to a different burial site only when there was a strong reason for doing so (especially when the tombs were being violated or otherwise under threat). Trajan’s judgement influenced the decisions by subsequent rulers who took their stance in this matter.
EN
There seem to be a lot of differences between archaeology and forensic science but, when we take a closer look, we may find out that some methods and goals may be similar, especially on the ground of exhumation of graves. Since the early 90s, in Poland, archaeologists more often started to take part in investigations covering mass murders and crimes against humanity committed during the Second World War. It occurred that their methodology is providing best results in this kind of work. At first, archeologists started only as consultants but then they were given a possibility to lead their own field of excavations in that area of interest. Moreover, it led to creating a new subdiscipline called forensic archaeology. It is hard to tell the difference between archaeological and forensical field methods of exhuming graves. Archaeological literature is way more precise in describing that topic, whereas police experts are thought to provide general procedures of securing a crime scene. The most obvious differences between the two fields in question are visible in the methods of documentation. However, there is no doubt that the specialists in each of the disciplines have learned a lot from each other since they decided to cooperate in some specific cases.
PL
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EN
Human being has always been a religious being and faith, regardless of its form, has not only obliged them to bury the dead, but also to protect their remains from being destroyed by animals or other human beings. In its regulations, the current Code of the Canon Law does not directly speak about the exhumation. However, exhumation is referred to in a variety of legal regulations issued by the particular church in the form of instructions issued by some of the Polish dioceses, as well as regulations provided by the administrators of particular denominational cemeteries. While speaking about exhumation, it is important to stress that in the light of the canon law it mainly takes place during the beatification process and is a requirement of the canonization law which should happen during that process in the diocese or before the beatification of the servant of God. In conclusion, it is important to highlight that the Catholic Church respects and refers to the civil law while setting the norms in regards to when and why the exhumation should be conducted.
EN
Although the problem of death has long been bothering theologians, philosophers, psychologists, sociologists, anthropologists and culture experts, ultimately the regulation of areas related to the end of human life belongs to lawyers. They have to answer the questions when the human life ends and when the complex legal problems related to the protection of the deceased’s personal rights are solved. Although the family of the deceased is not in the possession of the deceased’s body, first and foremost the family own the right to decide on the deceased’s burial. This can of course cause conflicts. The right to the grave is personal and property. It is regulated by the Act of Law of January 31, 1959 about cemeteries and burial of deceased individuals. Of course, the funeral involves financial issues that do not constitute inheritance debt. In practice, serious difficulties may give rise to the will of the deceased as to the place or method of burial. Controversies can sometimes be aroused by the inscriptions on the tombstones, which involves the right to perform the worship of the deceased. The right to be buried by the immediate family of the deceased is a personal subjective right. The issue of exhumation is also important.
PL
Jakkolwiek problem śmierci nurtuje od dawna teologów, filozofów, psychologów, socjologów, antropologów, kulturoznawców, to jednak w ostatecznym rozrachunku regulacja obszarów związanych z zakończeniem życia ludzkiego należy do prawników. Oni muszą odpowiedzieć na pytanie, kiedy następuje kres życia człowieka oraz rozwiązanie skomplikowanych problemów prawnych, związanych z ochroną dóbr osobistych zmarłego. Wprawdzie rodzina zmarłego nie dysponuje jego zwłokami, to jednak jej w pierwszym rzędzie przysługuje prawo do decydowania o pochówku zmarłego. Może to oczywiście wywoływać konflikty. Prawo do grobu ma charakter osobisty i majątkowy. Reguluje je ustawa o cmentarzach i chowaniu zmarłych. Z pogrzebem wiążą się oczywiście kwestie natury finansowej, które nie stanowią długu spadkowego. W praktyce poważne trudności może nastręczać spełnienie woli zmarłego, co do miejsca, bądź sposobu pochówku. Kontrowersje mogą niekiedy budzić napisy na nagrobkach, z czym wiąże się prawo do wykonywania kultu zmarłego. Prawo do pochowania przysługujące najbliższej rodziny osoby zmarłej jest osobistym prawem podmiotowym. Istotna jest także kwestia ekshumacji.
PL
There are references reaching back to the Middle Ages, regarding the fear of the “undead” or “living dead” who would rise from their graves in a local cemetery to haunt and harm the community. The fear of the “undead” was extremely strong, and the entailing hysteria often affected entire communities. In the 16th to the 18th century, in Silesia, effective forms of coping with the harmful deceased were developed. Analysing the preserved source material, we are able to determine that the basic actions involved finding the grave of the “undead” in the cemetery, exhuming the corpse and destroying it. However, this did not always mean the total annihilation of the poor man’s corpse. The trial and execution of the corpse of a person suspected of the harmful activity against the living took place observing almost the same rules as in the case of the living. Apart from the authorities, who usually commissioned local jurors to handle the situation, opinions and advice were also sought from the clergy as well as gravediggers and executioners. The last were considered to be experts of sorts and were often called upon to see corpses of the suspected dead. In the analysed cases of posthumous magic (magia posthuma) in Silesia, we deal with two directions of handling the corpse accused of a harmful posthumous activity. In both cases, the main decision was made to remove such corpses from the cemetery’s area. Costs of the trial and execution of the “undead” were considerable. They included expenses incurred due to rather frequent court hearings at which sometimes dozens of witnesses were heard, payments to expert witnesses, payments to guards watching graves, costs of legal instructions, services of gravediggers who would dig up suspicious graves, and, finally, the remuneration of executioners and their people. In the second half of the 18th century, despite relevant decrees issued by supreme authorities, trials and executions of the dead were not completely abandoned.
EN
The traditional beliefs of the inhabitants of Madagascar have strong monotheistic elements, focused on life after death and interaction with the god Zanahary and the ancestors. The Betsileo tribe practices a ritual called “famadihana” or “Ati-damba,” which involves exhuming and scrolling or re-wrapping of corpses. Through invocations and blood sacrifices of the zebu, the living seek prosperity while incorporating the deceased into the status of Ancestors. These funerary customs bear similarities to those of China, Southeast Asian fringe cultures, and the Ibaloi tribe of the Philippines. These similarities may have to do with migration waves to Madagascar and the passing down of traditions from generation to generation.
PL
Tradycyjne wierzenia mieszkańców Madagaskaru są zasadniczo monoteistyczne. W plemieniu Betsileo przekonanie o życiu po śmierci skłania do interakcji z Bogiem Zanahary i przodkami. Lęk przed zmarłymi prowadzi do prowokowania ich przez potomnych. Rytuał famadihana, czyli Ati-damba polega na ekshumacji i przewijaniu zwłok. Ofiary krwawe z zebu i inwokacje zapewniają pomyślność żyjącym i włączają zmarłych w status przodków. Zwyczaje i obrzędy funeralne zawierają podobne do tradycji Chin i kultur Azji Południowo-Wschodniej elementy, szczególnie plemienia Ibaloi z Filipin. To wynik emigracji na Madagaskar i przekazywania tradycji z pokolenia na pokolenie.
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