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EN
The present article is a contribution to a long lasting debate concerning granaries and more precisely the large rectangular granaries from the Middle Kingdom era. Its four main aims are as follows: presenting the large rectangular granaries in a broader context of other storage facilities and drawing attention to their specificity; secondly, the article questions the possibility of estimating a settlement population on the basis of its large-granaries storage capacity and focuses on the difficulties resulting from such a use of this particular kind of archaeological evidence. The third aim is to discuss the functional frame of these structures. The fourth and last focus of this study is to point out the necessity of studying all kinds of storage facilities, in order to better understand the redistribution system and private ownership in the Middle Kingdom.
EN
Objectives: Grains transport is an activity that requires many procedures that affect the quality of the raw material being transported. Grains are transported by road, sea and rail. They are the subject of exchange on a local, national and international scale, being an important raw material for food processing. The main purpose of the study was to present the importance of grains transport in Poland in total transport. Material and methods: Pearson's linear correlation was used for the analysis. The following methods were used for the analysis and presentation of materials: descriptive, tabular, graphic, dynamics indicators with a fixed and variable basis, Pearson's linear correlation coefficient, coefficient of variation. Results: The largest volume of grains was transported by road, then by sea and rail. However, the most important in a given branch were grains in maritime transport (from 3 to 9% of total transport in this branch), then in road (1-2%) and rail. In the years 2007-2018, the volume of grain transported by road and rail increased the fastest, the level of transport by sea was maintained. Conclusions: The importance of ports in Gdynia and Świnoujście was systematically increasing, while the others were decreasing. There was a strong linear relationship between the volume of grain transported by road, rail and in total, and the economic situation in Poland.
PL
Galicja jako wewnętrzna kolonia oraz najuboższy region monarchii habsburskiej poszukiwała możliwości wyjścia z błędnego koła zacofania gospodarczego i modernizacji kraju. Wraz z uzyskaniem autonomii w latach 60. XIX w. następuje stopniowy rozwój gospodarczy tego regionu. Galicyjskie władze autonomiczne prowadzą politykę gospodarczą, której celem jest rozwój różnych sektorów gospodarki. W latach 80. galicyjskie władze autonomiczne podjęły działania, których celem było utworzenie krajowych składów publicznych w zachodniej i wschodniej Galicji, wspomagających rozwój handlu. Po długich staraniach udało się pod koniec lat 80. utworzyć takie składy na zboże i alkohol we Lwowie i Krakowie. Koszty założenia składów pokryte zostały z budżetu krajowego. Składy te przechowywały obce towary za odpłatnością. Skład lwowski funkcjonował tylko kilka lat – już w 1898 r. został zamknięty i wystawiony na sprzedaż. Jednym z powodów likwidacji była zła lokalizacja. Uważano, że gdyby taki skład powstał w Tarnopolu, miałby większe szanse na prowadzenie działalności. Skład krakowski był lepiej zlokalizowany i funkcjonował do końca istnienia Galicji. W składzie krakowskim przechowywane było głównie zboże z Rosji, które eksportowano do Niemiec. Trafiało się także zboże węgierskie i wschodniogalicyjskie, które dostarczano do młynów krakowskich i okolicznych.
EN
As an internal colony and the poorest region of the Habsburg Monarchy, Galicia was looking for opportunities to escape the vicious circle of underdevelopment and to modernise. After gaining its autonomy in the 1860s, the region’s economy gradually improved. The Galician autonomous government implemented economic policy which sought to develop various sectors of the economy. In the 1880s, the Galician autonomous government took measures to establish regional public warehouses in the western and eastern parts of the region, supporting the development of trade. After a great deal of effort, in the late 1880s warehouses were created for grain and alcohol in Lviv and Cracow. Establishment costs were covered by the national budget, and the warehouses stored all foreign goods for a fee. However, the warehouse in Lviv was poorly located, and operated for only a few years before being shuttered and put up for sale in 1898. It was believed that it would have been more likely to succeed had it been built in Ternopil. The warehouse in Cracow, which stored mostly Russian grain being exported to Germany, was better located and operated until Galicia ceased to exist. The Hungarian and Eastern Galician grain stored in Cracow was also processed in flour mills in the city and its surroundings.
PL
Określenie sensu rytów siewnych jest możliwe wtedy, gdy zwróci się uwagę na kulturowe znaczenie żniw i dożynek. Żniwa rozgrywały się w czasie szczególnie symbolicznym, będącym punktem szczytowym dorocznego cyklu gospodarczego i biegnącego równolegle wobec niego cyklu zachowań kulturowych. Dopełnieniem symbolicznych zabiegów żniwnych są dożynki. Autor przedstawia zachowania kulturowe, w których sakralna moc ziarna widoczna jest w czasie świąt katolickich, zwłaszcza święta Matki Boskiej Zielnej. Poza rytami siewnymi ziarno występuje jeszcze w licznych sytuacjach kulturowych, gdzie wykazuje się wieloraką symboliką. Za najciekawsze autor uważa znaczenia niesione przez ziarno w cyklu zwyczajów rodzinnych (chrzestnych i pogrzebowych), dorocznych (ryty odbywane w okresie Bożego Narodzenia) oraz przy okazjonalnych praktykach gospodarczych i zabiegach leczniczych. Przytoczony materiał kulturowy pokazuje, że w rytach siewnych wspólną płaszczyznę tematyczną ziarna stwarzają jego odniesienia przyszłościowe. Ku nim prowadzą sensy nasion, ujawniające się w konkretnych działaniach ludowych. Poszczególne funkcje ziarna: odrodzeńcza, ochronna, adopcyjna, wróżebna, inicjalna, wywoływania płodności, jednoczą się w znaczeniowym planie nowego życia, zarówno doczesnego, jak wiecznego, ludzkiego i roślinnego.
EN
It is possible to determine the meaning of sowing rituals when one pays attention to the cultural meaning of harvest and the harvest festival of dożynki. Harvest has always took place in an especially symbolic period, which marks the most important point in the annual agricultural cycle, and the cycle of cultural behaviour that runs parallel to it. The harvest festival of dożynki complements the symbolic harvest activities. The author depicts cultural behaviours in which the sacral power of grain is visible during Catholic holidays, especially during the Feast of the Assumption [Matki Boskiej Zielnej]. Apart from sowing rituals, grain appears in multiple cultural contexts in which it takes on various symbolic meanings. The author thinks that the meanings of grain within the cycle of family customs (such as baptism and burial), annual rituals (the rituals that take place in the period of Christmas), or during occasional agricultural practices and medicinal practices are the most interesting. The cultural material presented in the article shows that in the case of sowing rituals the common thematic plane of grain creates its future references. The meanings of grain that are displayed in concrete folk activities lead to these future references. Particular functions of grain, i.e. the renewing function, the protective function, the adoptive function, the foreseeing function, and the initial function, the function of initiating fertility, are united in the meaning plane of a new – earthly as well as eternal – life, be it human or plant life.
PL
Artykuł rozpatruje figury florystyczne jako część charakterystycznego dla sztuki lirycznej U. Dubouki systemu motywów i kompleksów motywicznych, udokładnia metaforyczny potencjał postaci roślin od frazesu językowego i figury retorycznej do dyskretnych, wypełnionych oryginalną semantyką złożonych alegorii symbolicznych, asocjacyjnych i autorskich innowacji. Autor wyciąga wnioski o osobliwościach funkcjonowania i różnorodności narodowego folkloru romantycznego figur florystycznych w wierszach Pociąg się spieszył, Myśli, myśli, jak mam was uświadomić, Akordy, akordy!, Trochę jesieni i garść klonowych liści, W śnieżny zimowy dzień.... U. Dubouki oraz identyfikuje ideologiczne i tematyczne dominanty twórczości poety.
BE
У артыкуле разглядаюцца флоравобразы як частка характэрнай для лірыкі У. Дубоўкі мастацкай сістэмы матываў і матыўных комплексаў, удакладняецца метафарычны патэнцыял вобразаў раслін ад моўнага клішэ і рытарычнай фігуры да дыскрэтных, напоўненых арыгінальнай семанты¬кай складаных сімвалічных алегорый, асацыятыўна-аўтарскіх навацый. Робяцца высновы пра асаблівасці функцыянавання і разнастайнасць нацыя¬нальных фальклорна-рамантызаваных флоравобразаў у вершах Цягнік спяшаўся, Думкі, думкі, як мне вас ушчунуць, Акорды, акорды!, Крыху восені і жменька кляновых лістоў, У зімовы заснежаны дзень… У. Дубоўкі, вызначаюцца ідэйна-тэматычныя дамінанты творчасці паэта.
EN
The article examines flora images as part of the artistic system of motifs and a characteristic of the motif complexes of U. Dubouka’s poetry and clarifies the metaphorical potential of plant images from linguistic cliches and rhetorical figures to discrete, complex symbolic allegories filled with original semantics and associative-authorial innovations. Conclusions are drawn on the basis of the peculiar functioning and diversity of national folklore-romanticized flora images in the poems The train was in a hurry, Thoughts, thoughts, how can I reassure you, Chords, chords!, A little of autumn and a handful of maple leaves, On a winter snow-covered day... by U. Dubouka, the ideological and thematic dominants of the poet’s creativity are determined.
XX
Te following article describes the socio-economic situation of Galicia in the years 1772-1848, paying special attention to the period of the rule of empress Maria Teresa (d. 1780) and her son Joseph II (d. 1790). Above all, the article touches upon the issues regarding the situation of the rural population and describes the Austrian reforms which had the goal of improving the situation of this population and which regarded, inter alia, the regulation of the amount of socage and the duties of the peasants towards the court, the rural judiciary and other matters regarding servile relations. A separate issue considered in the article was the development of agriculture and the gradual introduction of new crops within the Galicia region, such as potatoes and clover, as well as the changes within the range of the cultivation techniques.
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