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1
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Józef Howorka – właściciel browaru „Nowa Bawaria” w Chełmie-Trubakowie (1928–1949)

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Dryja S.
Historia Slavorum Occidentis
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2021
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issue 1 (28)
118-138
EN
The article presents Józef Howorka, a co-owner of a brewery in Chełm, where special emphasis has been placed on the period after 1944 and the issue of the brewery’s nationalization. The brewery underwent an architectural and technological reconstruction.
2
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Państwowy Browar w Głuchołazach w latach 1945–1948. Przyczynek do historii browarnictwa na Śląsku

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Dryja S.
Śląski Kwartalnik Historyczny Sobótka
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2022
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vol. 77
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issue 1
77-114
EN
The article presents the history of the brewery in Głuchołazy from the moment it was taken over by the Polish administration in 1945 until its closure in 1948, on a wider political and economical background of the whole country. This study is a contribution to the history of Polish brewing and malting industry after World War II.
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Kobieta w krakowskim przemyśle słodowniczo-piwowarskim doby wczesnonowożytnej w świetle testamentów i dokumentów podatkowych

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Dryja S.
Rocznik Lubelskiego Towarzystwa Genealogicznego
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2012
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vol. 4
96-116
EN
According to an unanimous opinion of many researchers, the period from the half of the 15th until the beginning of the 17th century is “the beer golden age”. Beer was a commonly used drink, and malt and beer brewing industry had a considerable role for the economy. In the half of the 16th century almost 150 breweries were run in Kraków, whose contemporaneous population is estimated to be circa 20000 people. There was one brewery to about 140 inhabitants. Many women could be found among the owners of the breweries. Kraków guild statutes do not directly specify the rules concerning company take-overs made by women, it is obvious, however, that they could only be run by widows. Similar rules were in effect in all Polish towns. About 10 percent of breweries in Kraków were run by women, and the most active ones gained considerable independence. These women accumulated substantial wealth, bought and sold properties freely, paid for their children’s education, invested in the development of their companies. Women did not participate in the production works in person, hired brewers were employed for this purpose. An average production in breweries run by women was usually higher than this of their male equivalents. It was especially evident in the moments of temporary falls of production, as well as during more serious crises. Although almost 40 percent of women ended their professional career in a time shorter than a year, a considerable part of women managed to stay longer, sometimes even a few decades, in the brewing industry.
4
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Podatki i opłaty pobierane od piwowarów krakowskich w XVI i pierwszej połowie XVII wieku. Reforma czopowego z czasów panowania Stefana Batorego i jej wpływ na piwowarstwo krakowskie

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Dryja S.
Roczniki Dziejów Społecznych i Gospodarczych
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2017
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vol. 78
PL
W artykule omówiono problematykę danin finansowych ponoszonych przez piwowarów krakowskich na rzecz skarbu królewskiego i miasta w XVI i pierwszej połowie XVII w. W szczególności wskazano na rolę czopowego, który to podatek – w odróżnieniu od danin na rzecz miasta – nie był świadczeniem stałym i charakteryzował się zmienną wysokością. Wskazano na reformę podatku czopowego przeprowadzoną w 1578 r. przez Stefana Batorego i jej negatywne konsekwencje dla skarbowości miejskiej i samych piwowarów. Zwrócono uwagę, że podwyższenie zobowiązań finansowych nie wywołało kryzysu piwowarstwa krakowskiego, ale spełniło rolę katalizatora, przyspieszając upadek wielu zakładów, powiązany z ogólnym spadkiem produkcji. Kryzys piwowarstwa krakowskiego wyprzedził bowiem analogiczne zjawiska, obserwowane w piwowarstwie europejskim, a także gospodarczy kryzys w Rzeczypospolitej. Taxes and fees levied on Cracow brewers in the sixteenth and first half of the seventeenth century. The czopowe tax reform under King Stefan Batory and its impact on Cracow brewingThe article focuses on the question of financial levies paid by brewers in Cracow to the royal and municipal treasuries in the sixteenth and first half of the seventeenth century. Special attention is paid to the role played by the tax called czopowe, which – unlike obligations paid to the city – had no permanent character and differed in value. A reform of czopowe tax introduced in 1578 by King Stefan Batory is analysed together with its adverse impact both on the municipal treasury and brewers. Attention is paid to the fact that although a tax raise as such did not cause a crisis of brewing in Cracow, it played the part of catalyst and accelerated the crash of many breweries, related to a general decrease in production. The crisis of Cracow beermaking foreshadowed analogous phenomena observed in European brewing, and an economic crisis of the whole Commonwealth.
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Zapotrzebowanie na energię krakowskiego przemysłu piwowarskiego w XVI i 1 połowie XVII wieku w świetle kwerendy archiwalnej i symulacji procesu spalania w piecach bezkominowych

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Dryja S., Janowski M.
Res Gestae. Czasopismo Historyczne
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2018
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vol. 6
143-174
PL
The XVI century Cracow-based malting and brewing industry was at the peak of its development, in line with the European trend in the industry’s development. It is no coincidencethen, that the period is called the “golden age of beer”. Around the middle of the century nearly140 breweries had operated in Cracow, furnished with normalized equipment which enabled the production of 4680–4770 liters of beer from a single brewing batch. In Cracow from 130 to nearly 270 hectolitres of beer were produced annually (and that is discounting Kazimierz and Kleparz, which at the time were separate municipal entities). We know relatively much regarding the unitsof measure and magnitude of Cracow’s brewing industry during that period, however due to gaps in sources the issues related to the trading of timber (trade measures, trade organization, demand), essential to beer brewing, has not been discussed thoroughly. This article intends to fill this particular gap. Due to the aforementioned gaps in sources, the estimated amount of timber consumed in brewery production has been calculated based on a simulation of the stack-lessfurnace combustion process. For that purpose, experiments conducted by heat engineering specialistsat the AGH University of Science and Technology in Cracow have been used. Timber was rafted to Cracow via the Vistula River, from areas located in its upper section orlarger tributaries. The congregation of Cracow drafters had the monopoly on rafting and tradingwood. Rafted timber was stored at the royal timber garden, at the foot of the Wawel hill. In 1570 nearly 70 thousand timber logs were rafted to Cracow. The measuring units for rafting during the modern period have been developed by Jerzy Wyrozumski, however the trading measures remain almost unknown. e unit of measure for rafted wood was simply a timber log. Trade timber (heating timber) was calculated according to spatial units of measure. It seems, however, that a correlation occurs between both these systems (the common term of “plet” and “dziesiątek” or “tenth”). It has been adopted that a “dziesiątek”consists of six clusters or eighteen wagons. The load capacity of a wagon has been assumed at 600 kg. This corresponds to a volume of 1,2–1,3 cubic meters of beech or oak timber (suchtimber was burnt in Cracow’s breweries). In comparison to normative volumes for those treespecies, we can observe that one wagon corresponded to half a log, after cutting, lumbering and drying (to a level of 15–18%). The calculated values served to the purpose of comparison withthe results achieved from calculating the stack-less furnace combustion process simulation. For the calculations a boiler capacity at a level of 5000 liters and its permanent embedding has been assumed. This is because a typical furnace at the time was a stack-less structure with anembedded boiler, fired by hard, non-coniferous timber (oak, beech). Three stages of productionhave been distinguished: boiling of water, boiling of the wort and sustaining the boiling of wort (during the assumed time from 1 to 2,5 hours). It has been observed, that the first two stages ofthe studied process have the same energy demand in every given variant. The difference is relatedto the brewing time of the wort. Energy expenditure increases at this stage proportionally to extension of the boiling time. The fuel demand is a direct result of the process efficiency, and anindirect result of the energy efficiency (caloric value) of the fuel. The results allow to present several significant conclusions. Brewing beer was a highly energy-consuming process. Brewers based their process on highly caloric non-coniferous timber. Infurnaces with an embedded boiler (without a slot) boiling of water was associated with a constantenergy expenditure corresponding to burning 0,9 to 1 cubic meter of timber. The energy demand of the wort boiling process (brewing) was dependent on the length of the process. The energy expenditure corresponded to burning 1 to 1,15 cubic meters of timber. The total consumption,therefore, was 1,9 to 2,5 cubic meters of timber (which corresponded to – 1300 kg). Comparing this to a wagon’s load capacity (with an adopted average of approx. 600 kg), we canobserve that the portion for a single brew corresponded to 1,5 to 2 wagons. It would seem, that for further studies it is recommended to conduct model tests. A 1:1 scaleis not a necessary requirement. A 1:3 scale model appears sufficient, therefore with a boiler volumeof no less than 1500 dm3. Model tests would allow to verify the adopted assumptions andadjust any possible errors. The historical source verification method based on a theoretical analysis of the combustion process simulation adopted in there article may find applications in other crafts which incorporatefurnaces of different designs based on burning wood (brewers, bakers, coppersmiths, blacksmiths, etc.), which in consequence would allow for a comprehensive assessment of Cracow’s (or other urban centers’) energy demand in the modern era.
6
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Najstarsze fazy kościoła parafialnego pod wezwaniem św. Małgorzaty i św. Stanisława w Żębocinie

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Dryja S., Głowa W., Sławińska J., Sławiński S.
Folia Historica Cracoviensia
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2012
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vol. 18
EN
The paper has been based on archaeological and architectural exploration of the church in Żębocin carried out in 2011. Żębocin, a village in the Miechów district and the Proszowice deanery, had its beginnings reportedly in the mid-11th century. However, the first squire of Żębocin documented in historical sources was Tomko, coat of arms unknown, mentioned in 1384. According to tradition, the first church in the village, which has not survived, was built in the years 1059–1071 and consecrated by St. Stanislas of Szczepanów. In a local legend, the wife of knight Mikołaj of Żębocin took shelter in the tower of a stone church in Żębocin during the unrest in the reign of Boleslaus the Brave. The stone foundation under the north-eastern corner of the chancel belonged probably to a stone building, its function unknown, which may have stood there already in those turbulent times. The extant church, erected in the mid-13th century or soon afterwards, was a small single-nave structure with a chancel closed with a straight wall, built from bricks (with a wendian bond pattern on its elevation) on stone foundations. It combined two styles: Romanesque (as shown by the surviving splayed window in the northern elevation of the chancel) and Gothic (the brick ogival frame in the northern elevation of the nave). The important question whether the church had a tower from the start and where that tower was located remains undecided; the tower could have been incorporated into the body of the nave from the west or built above the chancel; it could also have been added afterwards, in the 16th century at the latest. Reportedly, the church in Żębocin once had a defensive character and was located in knights’ fortified town. Its founder may have been a progenitor of the Strzemieńczyk or the Odrowąż families. It should be remembered that Romanesque single-nave “village” churches built on a simple plan are quite frequent in Central Europe; there are nearly a hundred of them in Poland alone. In Żębocin, the extant tower of the church, the facade and the sacristy at the western side were built no later than ca. 1688.
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