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EN
As a « relational concept », alterity can only be defined in opposition to what sociologists call a « referential group », an entity which dictates political, religious or cultural norms in a concrete society. Our article will first explain the difference between simple « diversity » and real « alterity », which is perceived as a potential source of threat by the majority society. Using concrete figures from 19th and 20th century Quebec novels, we will illustrate various types of alterity and the general evolution of Canadian mentality in relation to various minorities.
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EN
The paper summarizes the latest results of the research conducted by the Hungarian historiography on the Hungarian elites of the 19th and 20th century. Empirical research on the political elite of the Dual Monarchy started as early as the inter-war period. A clarification of the concepts and an initiation of empirical research in the field were attempted at the end of the 1970s and the beginning of the 1980s. After 1989, several scientists have continued studying the political, economic, military, intellectual elite and other elite groups, and it seems that remarkable results have been achieved in the field of elite studies, even though they are not in the main stream of the Hungarian historiography. Research in this field continues to present day.
EN
The article presents examples of vocabulary in quotations from the economic press from 1885–1886, which on the one hand show the rationality of the language of economy, but on the other hand emotions. It is – as it was hundred years later – a time of economic prosperity and of impending crisis. For comparison, examples from the press of the 20th century (1995–1996) are cited to show similarities and development of the language of economy during this period. Emotions have always accompanied economic processes, its successes and failures, for over 100 years.
EN
Comparing the results of the censuses of the language of daily use in the Bohemian lands before the First World War, and nationality censuses after the First World War, has been a subject of scientific and journalistic interest for almost a century. Until now, Czech historians have considered the results of Cisleithanian censuses to be imprecise and underestimated the Czech language use, while considering the results of nationality censuses in 1921 and 1930 to be exact. This study proves that such judgments are too simplistic, since even subsequent to 1918 state policy significantly affected census results, and furthermore there was a part of the population which could not clearly be fitted into one particular nationality or one language. The study analyses the factors which contributed to the increase in Czech nationality and decline in German and Polish nationality subsequent to 1918. It compares the weight of various factors on a countrywide scale, and also on the scale of different regions and locations.
EN
The study deals with the phenomenon of so-called black sheeps in Czech national society. Emphasis is placed on individuals born in the environment of prominent Czech families between the 1840s and the 1850s. The first part of the study outlines the typology of the black sheep, their motivation leading to the definition of the established conventions of the middle and upper classes of society, and the role of society itself in shaping the image of the black sheep. The second part of the paper presents a specific case of Maxmilián Švagrovský from Roudnice nad Labem. This paper analyzes his origin, study, family ties and public activities in the Czech national society.
Zapiski Historyczne
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2010
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vol. 75
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issue 2
103-150
EN
The article touches upon issues connected with infant mortality in Szczecin in the years of 1876–1913, analyzing the phenomenon with the emphasis on the social-spatial diversification. The choice of the research topic was determined by two factors. Firstly, at the beginning of the 20th century in Szczecin infant mortality was exceptionally high in comparison with other big German and European towns; secondly, the phenomenon gave rise to one of the first surveys concerning infant mortality, financed by the city in 1902. Apart from the latter – published in the magistrate records – (Bericht über die Verwaltung über der Gemeinde-Angelegenheiten der Stadt Stettin), the source material for the article is the monumental Statistics of Prussia (Preußische Statistik) and The Statistical Yearbook of the City of Szczecin (Statistischer Jahresbericht der Stadt Stettin). Archival materials kept in the State Archive in Szczecin have a complementary significance. They include the correspondence of the royal district doctors (kgl. Kreisärzte) conducted with the authorities of the Szczecin Province (Regierung Stettin). In order to limit the influence of the destiny factor, the method of aggregation of data was used. In the analysis of the population processes commonly used demographic rates and graphic representations were employed. The Geographic Information System (GIS) was used to show spatial differences in the shaping of different phenomena. The method of standard deviation was chosen. The basis for the description of the issues constituted a simple model of causes of infant mortality by Jörgen Vögele, with emphasis on the analysis of deaths due to disorders in the digestive system, treating their level as the marker of the influence of exogeneous environmental factors. The research showed a negative influence of the growing influx of people to the city on infant mortality. It was particularly visible at the end of the 19th century, when the development of industry in the city and nearby towns reached its peak. In that period post-natal mortality was the highest in comparison with infant mortality. It shows the role of environmental factors in the high rate of deaths of children who were under 1 year old. In the group of the aforementioned factors, the most prominent turned out to be insufficient breast-feeding. The 1902 survey demonstrated that among the youngest children who died of digestive disorders (51,5% of the total of deaths), only 0,3% were children who had been constantly breast-fed. In the group of children who died of digestive disorders the number of children of better-off parents was lower. The situation made the municipal authorities take prevention measures, including the promotion of breast-feeding among poorer population strata where infant mortality was much higher than in families of better-off parents. It is confirmed indirectly by the social-professional statistics of the natural demographic changes from the years of 1902–1913 ( the rate of deaths of children of unqualified agricultural workers was set against the rate of deaths of children of freelancers and officers – the difference amounted to 270%) and the spatial statistics of the natural demographic changes from the years 1911–1913 ( the rate of infant deaths in bourgeois districts was set against the one in workers’ areas – the difference was 130%). A clear negative correlation between the average number of rooms and infant mortality in the statistics districts of Szczecin (–0,808; p<0,001) allows the author to consider the economic factor very important in the creation of the phenomenon. However, bad housing was connected with infant deaths from digestive disorders only in half of the cases (1902), which indicates “bad habits” of parents, which are statistically more di cult to grasp. At the beginning of the 20th century together with the fall in the number of births, the increase in general wealth and the introduction of care over newborn babies, including the obligatory control of non-marital children (1910), infant mortality started to fall. However, it still remained high in comparison with other German cities. Moreover, social differences in relation to the phenomenon did not disappear, but they became stronger. It has not been explained yet why Szczecin was the leader in the disgraceful statistics.
EN
The political activities of the Czech Progressive Constitutional Party, largely differing from the major part of the Czech political arena, in the last months before the outbreak of World War I are explained. A description of the Party’s general profile, which continued the tradition of Czech progressionist movement of the 1890s and constituted a specific platform of modern Czech nationalism, is followed by the Party’s foreign political ideas expecting a global Paneuropean military conflict in the near future and relying on it as a way to solve the Czech question, i.e., to restore an independent Czech state based on the Czech historical constitutional right. The author follows and assesses the foreign political activities of the Czech Progressive Constitutional Party in spring 1914 and shows that it was the only party in the Czech political arena that was systematically preparing to the outbreak of a European war and linking the international solution to the Czech question to the Entente Powers, and thus anticipated the ways of anti-Austrian resistance movement during the war.
EN
The modern cooperative movement in Central and Eastern Europe was closely linked from its beginning to that of nationalism. Consequently, most of the first cooperative leaders were leading personalities of the national movement. They viewed cooperatives not only as tools to foster the economic development, but also to support national emancipation. These members of intelligentsia and bourgeoisie were responsible for the cooperative movement based on the principles of national separation. While at the initial stage of national movement the economic development was of secondary importance compared to the cultural requirements, the situation changed when cooperatives had become a mass movement. The cooperatives put their communication networks at the disposal of the national movement, or they were established in places where an initial cultural institution was already available. Thus, they constituted a support for national movements and contributed to the struggles shifting from the national area to the economic one.
EN
The ethnic (nationalist) classification and institutional position of nationalities in Cisleithania strongly reflected also the state’s interest. The state authorities had to take into consideration, in particular, the trends of social and politicaldevelopment, such as the rising significance of national identity and theinterconnection of national and civil rights. It should be noted here that in Cisleithania most of the populations of different nationality enjoyed favorable conditions to develop their national life. The main motive of the Taaffe Government’s decision to include the questionable category of communication language instead of the mother tongue or family language in the 1880 census consisted in the legal possibility of assimilation, i.e., preventing a nationality closure and, last but not least, protecting the integrity of the state. The whole period of 1880-1914 demonstrated the significance of independent judicial power. The Administrative Court and the Imperial Court of Cisleithania played an important role in establishing the nationalist principle in public life where the nationalist and the civil principles intertwined.
EN
Collections of manuscripts in Vilnius are stored in three archives: the Lithuanian State Historical Archives, the Central State Archives of Lithuania, and the Lithuanian Literature and Art Archive. They are also stored in the Manuscript Sections of the most important Vilnius libraries: the Library of the Vilnius University, the Wroblewski Library of the Lithuanian Academy of Sciences, and the Lithuanian National Library of Martynas Mažydas. Among the collections are many documents and written texts (referred to by the Latinate word polonica) from different epochs. Polonica texts by Polish writers and poets of the 19th and 20th centuries have been examined mainly by Polish researchers. Vilnius collections consist of many documents presenting the characters of minorum gentium writers such as Czesław Jankowski, Nikodem Erazm Iwanowski, and Maria Rodziewiczówna. Manuscripts are a valuable source of information about these authors. Irena Fedorowicz’s aim in this article is to show the output of archival studies concerning the life and work of 19th- and 20th-century writers. Some of the results have already been published in Lithuanian scholarly publications in the years 2016–2022.
PL
Zbiory archiwów i bibliotek wileńskich zawierają wiele poloników z różnych epok, które w mniejszym lub większym stopniu w XX wieku już zostały wykorzystane przez badaczy polskich (Edmunda Jankowskiego, Tadeusza Bujnickiego, Andrzeja Romanowskiego, Iwonę Wiśniewską i in.). Mniej znane są natomiast źródła rękopiśmienne (głównie listy) dotyczące polskich pisarzy minorum gentium z przełomu XIX i XX wieku, do których należą: Czesław Jankowski, Nikodem Erazm Iwanowski i Maria Rodziewiczówna. Materiały te znajdują się w Litewskim Państwowym Archiwum Historycznym, Litewskim Centralnym Archiwum Państwowym, Archiwum Literatury i Sztuki Litewskiej, a także w Dziale Rękopisów trzech bibliotek: Biblioteki Uniwersytetu Wileńskiego, Biblioteki Narodowej im. Martynasa Mažvydasa i Biblioteki Litewskiej Akademii Nauk im. Wróblewskich. Celem artykułu jest podzielenie się wiedzą i doświadczeniem na temat sposobów opracowywania i wykorzystywania archiwaliów dotyczących trojga wymienionych pisarzy. Wyniki swoich badań przedstawiłam w publikacjach, które zostały wydane na Litwie (w pismach naukowych i monografiach zbiorowych) w latach 2016–2022. Najwięcej uwagi poświęciłam spuściźnie archiwalnej Jankowskiego ze zbiorów Biblioteki Litewskiej Akademii Nauk im. Wróblewskich.
Studia Mazowieckie
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2022
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vol. 17
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issue 1
175-197
EN
The article presents the fi gure of Julia Kratowska, born in Puławy into a family with patriotic traditions. Julia Kratowska was an independence, educational, social, and political activist throughout the interwar period and shortly after the war she had a connection to Ciechanów. The article introduces to her genealogy, allows one to learn about her hitherto unknown roots. On the other hand, the rich archival material about her person, contained in the archives of the Mazovian Nobility Museum in Ciechanów, allows to present her entire career as a teacher of Polish, French, and German, starting from Lublin, then Zakopane and fi nally the city on the Łydynia River. We also recognize her as a devoted social activist of the Women’s Civic Labor Union, which she chaired in Ciechanów, and in the years 1935-1936 she headed the Main Board. She brought the greatest pride to the town as a senator of the Republic of Poland in 1935–1938.
PL
Artykuł przybliża postać pochodzącej z Puław, z rodziny o tradycjach patriotycznych, Julii Kratowskiej, działaczki niepodległościowej, oświatowej, społecznej i politycznej, przez cały okres międzywojenny i na krótko po wojnie związanej z Ciechanowem. Wprowadza w jej genealogię, pozwala poznać nieznane dotąd jej korzenie. Natomiast bogaty materiał archiwalny dotyczący jej postaci, znajdujący się w zbiorach archiwalnych Muzeum Szlachty Mazowieckiej w Ciechanowie, umożliwia zaprezentowanie jej całej drogi pracy zawodowej jako nauczycielki języka polskiego, francuskiego i niemieckiego, począwszy od Lublina, potem Zakopanego i wreszcie miasta nad Łydynią. Poznajemy ją także jako oddaną działaczkę społeczną Związku Pracy Obywatelskiej Kobiet, któremu przewodniczyła w Ciechanowie, a w latach 1935–1936 stała na czele Zarządu Głównego. Największą chlubę przyniosła miastu jako senator RP w latach 1935–1938.
EN
The present article focuses on Liang Qichao’s (1873–1929) idealised image of a national hero that could be observed in his biographical articles about Western heroes at the turn of the 20th Century. Liang believed that examples of modern Western personalities might serve as valid role models for creating patriotic society in China and also shape future Chinese heroes. He presented his readers with Western personalities, stressing their qualities and positive traits. He also pointed out some drawbacks he saw within Western history. Liang wanted his readers to study national hero types, learn from their mistakes and try to achieve their positive traits: national awareness, ability to cooperate, and selfless pursuit of the national interests.
EN
During the three decades he lived in Japan, Wenceslau de Moraes (1854–1929) explored and identified the many nuances of the changes that took place during the Meiji era (1868–1912), a period of modernisation in Japan — modernisation based very much on a western model. His writings are of great use and relevance for anyone conducting research on twentieth-century Japanese society.
EN
This study looks at municipal schools in Moravian Wallachia, i.e. one of the most remote and deprived regions in Moravia, over roughly the final four decades prior to the First World War. It is based on archive materials produced by district school councils, district authorities and individual schools (chronicles). It considers schools and teachers to be one of the most important agents of modernisation within the rural environment. It looks at the gradual expansion of the network of schools, and teachers and state authorities’ struggle with high absenteeism in teaching (and the reasons for absences), the school and out-of-school activity of teachers, and areas of conflict caused by teachers’ activities (conflicts with parents not sending their children to school regularly, or with conservative clergy over occupying an intellectual leadership position in villages, and over a conservative versus progressive interpretation of the world).
PL
Praga i jej wybitni myśliciele (naukowcy, odkrywcy i wynalazcy) wniosła swój niepozorny, lecz godny uwagi wkład nie tylko do czeskiej, ale i do światowej nauki, dziedzictwa cywilizacyjnego i kulturowego, które wywarły swój wpływ na stan XX-wiecznej nauki i współczesnej wiedzy w Europie. To nie tylko badacze i naukowcy, ale także zasłużone uczelnie i instytucje życia naukowego oraz cenne czeskie, europejskie i światowe inicjatywy intelektualne (kongresy, konferencje, szkoły teoretyczne) i wydawnicze (encyklopedie, leksykony). Niniejszy artykuł przybliży je w uporządkowany sposób (chronologicznie), obejmując swą cezurą czasową głównie wiek XIX i pierwszą połowę wieku XX, gdyż te czeskie i czechosłowackie osiągnięcia stały się przyczynkiem do współczesnych sukcesów oraz stanu czeskiej nauki i myśli wynalazczej.
EN
Prague and its ‘prominent sages’ made an in conspicuous yet in valuable contribution to the Czech and global science, cultural and civilizational heritage, which exerted a considerable impact on the state of the 20th century science and contemporary knowledge in Europe. It is not only the merit of its researchers and scientists, but also of its distinguished universities, institutions of scientific life, and valuable Czech, European and worldwide intellectual initiatives (congresses, conferences, theoretical schools) or publishing projects (encyclopaedias, lexicons). This paper presents them in an orderly manner (chronologically), encompassing mainly the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century, as these Czech and Czechoslovakian achievements gaverise to the modern success and affected the condition of the Czech science and inventive thought.
PL
Artykuł jest próbą literaturoznawczego spojrzenia na pamiętniki pisane przez kobietę. Ukazują one wiele szczegółów z powstania 1863 r., zsyłki na Syberię czy zamordowanie cara Aleksandra II. Niezwykle sugestywnie i obrazowo zostały przedstawione wydarzenia z buntów chłopskich na Ukrainie, współżycie dwóch wspólnot w Kamieńcu Podolskim czy stosunek Rosjan do Polaków na wschód od Charkowa. Ale przede wszystkim ukazują niesamowitą kobietę, która z niesamodzielnej, wrażliwej dziewczynki przeobraziła się w dojrzałą matkę, odpowiedzialną, samodzielną, odważną, bohaterkę swoich czasów, biorącą własny los i los innych w swoje ręce. Ponadto kobietę o szerokich horyzontach myślowych, z pewną nowoczesnością poglądów, prekursorkę równości społecznej, bystrą obserwatorkę i świadka wydarzeń politycznych, zmian dziejowych, na które potrafi spojrzeć krytycznie, również patriotkę. Niewiastę zaangażowaną, czynną w życiu publicznym, działaczkę.
EN
The following article is an insight into life revealed through diaries written by a woman. They make a valuable source of detailed information on such events as the Polish uprising of 1863, deportation to Siberia or the assassination of Tsar Alexander II. The diaries provide the reader with the first-hand and vivid accounts of peasant revolts in Ukraine, the coexistence of different nations in Kamieniec Podolski or the nature of Russian-Polish relations east of Charków. But above all, the diaries portray Maria Morzycka-Obuchowska as a remarkable woman, who changed from a dependent, and sensitive girl into a responsible, independent and brave mother, the heroine of her times. What emerges, it the image of a modern, broad-minded woman, a forerunner of social equality, a bright observer of political developments, and an avid patriot.
EN
The erstwhile location of the school was Zbaraż. In 1789, Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II founded a five-year middle school in Zbaraż. It was one of six such schools in Galicia. In 1805 Emperor Franz Joseph I made a decision to move the institution to Brzeżany – a town which was the capital of the district. After school reforms of 1819, the number of classes was increased to six. The four lower classes were grammatical, with the two higher ones being poetics and rhetoric. A prefect was responsible for the teaching matters, and the strategic decisions were made by a director, who was at the same time a leader of the district (ger. Kreishauptmannem). After the Springtime of Nations in 1848, Kreishauptmann lost his authority over the middle school, and a prefect was raised to the rank of director and took the sole responsibility for running the school. As a result of another reform, the government was trying to reduce the curriculum time in middle school to four years. However, thanks to the efforts of the local community, this was avoided and the middle school curriculum was increased to eight classes. It happened in the years 1863–1864 and 1864–1865. The first matura exam for the Brzeżany eighth grade students was conducted in May and June 1865. After Galicia became autonomous, the school had more room for expansion. The number of students over the years increased from 300 to over 700, and so from 9 groups being taught in the year 1868–1869, it increased to 23 groups being taught in the years preceding World War I. Bilingual classes were being created from the school year 1906–1907, where some subjects were taught in Polish and the rest in Ukrainian. In the school year of 1914–1915, the middle school was closed due to Russian occupation of a large part of Galicia. In the years 1915–1916 and 1917–1918, the middle school was either considered to be at the front or under occupation, and due to these conditions it could not be reopened until February 1918.
PL
Pierwotną siedzibą szkoły był Zbaraż. W 1789 r. cesarz Józef II Habsburg założył w mieście tym pięcioletnie gimnazjum. Była to jedna z sześciu tego typu szkół średnich w Galicji. W 1805 r. cesarz Franciszek I podjął decyzję, aby zakład przenieść do Brzeżan – miasta będącego siedzibą cyrkułu. W 1819 r., w wyniku reformy oświaty, liczbę klas zwiększono do sześciu. Cztery niższe nazwano gramatykalnymi, a dwie wyższe – humanioralnymi. Sprawami pedagogicznymi kierował prefekt, a strategiczne decyzje podejmował dyrektor, który był jednocześnie starostą (Kreishauptmann) cyrkułu. Po Wiośnie Ludów w 1848 r. Kreishauptmann utracił zwierzchnictwo nad gimnazjum, a prefekt podniesiony został do rangi dyrektora i przejął odpowiedzialność za całokształt działalności szkoły. W wyniku kolejnej reformy władze planowały zdegradować gimnazjum do czteroletniego, jednak dzięki staraniom lokalnej społeczności udało się temu zapobiec i uzyskać zgodę na powiększenie szkoły do ośmiu klas. Nastąpiło to w latach 1863/64–1864/65. W maju i czerwcu 1865 r. dla absolwentów klasy ósmej odbyła się pierwsza w Brzeżanach matura, zwana egzaminem dojrzałości. Bardziej korzystne warunki dla rozwoju szkoły nastały po uzyskaniu przez Galicję autonomii. Liczba zespołów klasowych wzrosła z 9 w roku 1868/69 do 23 w latach poprzedzających I wojnę światową, a liczba uczniów z ponad 300 do ponad 700. Od roku szkolnego 1906/07 zaczęto tworzyć klasy utrakwistyczne (dwujęzyczne), w których dla części przedmiotów językiem wykładowym był polski, a dla pozostałych – ukraiński. W roku szkolnym 1914/15 gimnazjum nie funkcjonowało z powodu okupacji dużej części Galicji przez wojska rosyjskie. W latach 1915/16–1917/18 znajdowało się albo w strefie przyfrontowej, albo pod okupacją i do lutego 1918 r. nie było w nim warunków do wznowienia systematycznej pracy.
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