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EN
Private sector of culture of the Republic of Belarus: formation and development (1991–2008)In the given research the author on the basis of the historical and genetic analysis, methods of typology and deduction represents the basic segments of sphere of culture of the Belarus in which private subjects of culture have arisen and developed. The analysis of achievements and lacks of the given phenomenon is carried out, the factors influencing development are marked.The private sector in sphere of culture of Belarus in 1991–2008 could not create appreciable enough competition to official bodies. In cultural aspect only some projects became really platforms for experiment. First of all it concerns theatrical creativity, motion picture arts and painting.Development of a competition was not promoted by a state policy creating unequal conditions for development (tax privileges, rent decrease, etc.). Negative influence on formation of private noncommercial sector has rendered absence of the developed legislation on sponsorship and patronage of arts.Private establishments in culture sphere were created both the commercial organizations and individual businessmen, and the private persons far from business. The aspiration to profit not always was the main thing for businessmen. Private theatre in Gomel, a museum‑drugstore in Grodno, picture galleries were created by businessmen for the purposes more likely aesthetic, for confirmation of the status. The satisfaction of personal ambitions, the aspiration to be more available to public was the main thing for noncommercial projects. Most brightly it is appreciable in museum business (A. Bely, J. Gil’s museum).The projects arisen and developing on a wave of political disagreements in the country are present at a private sector of culture of the Belarus (cinéma vérité, museums).It is necessary to ascertain full absence in the country of private cinemas and film studios of game cinema, the organizations of national crafts, circuses. 
EN
Prior studies show that the degree of internal audit effectiveness tends to vary with country- and organisation-level dynamics in an internal audit environment. The antecedents of internal audit effectiveness appear not fully explored as yet. This study, based on institutional theory, is aimed at investigating the relationship of internal audit effectiveness with two organisational attributes, i.e. organisational category and organisational size. To this end, a postal survey and an online survey were conducted among internal auditors in Poland. The research results show that although internal audit effectiveness does not significantly differ between public sector and private sector organisations, larger organisations in private sector have established more effective internal audit departments than their counterparts in smaller organisations. However, in the public sector the size of organisations is not related to internal audit effectiveness.
EN
The systemic transformation in Poland, aimed, among others, at activating market mechanisms, has resulted in a change in the ownership structure and privatization that has accompanied it. Privatization processes are commonly considered to be principally motivated by an increase in efficiency of the economy based on the assumption that efficiency of private enterprises is higher than that of public sector ones. The main aim of the article is to verify the above hypothesis. An analysis of efficiency of public and private sector enterprises, taking into account their organizational and legal forms, made on the basis of Central Statistical Office information, confirmed the above hypothesis. Private enterprises use their assets better and take advantage of the financial leverage mechanism to a larger extent. It should be emphasized, however, that private enterprises are more adversely affected by economic fluctuations caused by the crisis.
EN
This paper is focused on informal relations between state authorities and business, which exist in a peculiar Belarusian economic system, where the competition remains restricted, and the public sector based on large companies continues to play a crucial role. The author argues that the Belarusian public authorities have developed a broad set of informal rules which allow them to extract resources from small and medium private enterprises (SMEs) and control the expansion of the private sector. He also argues that as long as informal extractive institutions designed and maintained by the state remain in place, the improvement of formal business regulations alone will not produce the expansion of the SME sector. In authors opinion, an extra-legal extraction of funds and informal discrimination against small and medium private enterprises are embedded in the logic of the centrally planned economy, which Belarus has preserved after the fall of the Soviet Union. This paper may also help to understand how SMEs operate in many other economies of the post-Soviet area and what obstacles to the development they face.
EN
The aim of this paper is to shed light on the public and private sector interdependencies in the international financial market. Using annual data on sovereign and private sector external indebtedness for 95 emerging and developing countries in the 1970-2012 period it looks at the relationship between the level and structure of public external debt and the likelihood of private sector entry in international bond and loan markets. The private sector entry in the offshore loans and bonds markets is shown to be conditional on the amount of public sector external debt. The relationship is complex but in general the saturation of the financial market with external government liabilities renders the private sector entry into the bonds’ market more difficult.
EN
The experience of the developed countries shows that the innovation are motive force of every economy and they are influencing a long-term growth potential. Innovation policy of a country shall play an extremely important role in the development of innovation processes. Innovation policy should be a well-balanced combination of generating the knowledge by means of choosing a sector strategic for a particular economy and eliminating obstacles to a capital access. The aim of this article is to present innovation policy and its role in the constantly changing economy.
EN
The public sector is commonly thought to offer relatively low wages, but neither statistics nor research for different countries justifies this belief. In general, the observed regularity is that the average wage in the public sector exceeds the average wage in the private one. The difference is sometimes quite substantial. The comparison of raw average wages suggesting higher wages for public sector would however be misleading. To a large extent, this premium can be attributed to the differences in the structure of employment in both sectors. The public sector employment is biased towards higher level of education and longer job tenures, which on the grounds of human capital theory explains the observed higher average wages in the public sector. The aim of this article is to find to what extent the observed difference in wages is a result of differentiated structure of employment. We use LFS data for Poland and a Mincerean wage regression with Heckman correction supplemented by a quantile regression to show that, after controlling for structural differences in employment, the public sector wage premium in Poland is negative.
EN
The article characterizes the entrepreneurship in the smallest towns of Poland (below 2 thousand inhabitants). In particular, the number of entrepreneurs, as well as their selected proprietary and functional groups were taken into consideration. The research allowed for the relationship between the scale of entrepreneurship in the towns and their location and size. Besides, some investigation was undertaken into the economic strategies of the gminas (communes), whose main towns are the ones analyzed in the article.
EN
Language teacher wellbeing in the private education sector has almost been completely neglected in research. This study examines a well-functioning institution in the private sector and analyzes the systemic and contextual factors that contribute to the flourishing of its teachers. The case study explores the wellbeing of English language instructors by means of open questionnaires, in-depth semi-structured interviews, and participant observation. The findings reveal a number of facets contributing to positive teacher wellbeing at the systemic, institutional level, such as corporate culture, policies, organization, management, opportunities for professional growth, and social life, as well as adequate resources, and good physical working conditions. Most good practice emerging from the research is universal and can be implemented by language institutions in all contexts. However, some variables that affect language teacher wellbeing at this workplace are specific to the nature of the institution and, therefore, could not be put into practice elsewhere.
EN
The European Bank for induced Pluripotent Stem Cells is a global iPSC research resource designed to overcome inadequacies in iPSC research and banking services in order to make a diverse collection of quality-controlled iPS cell lines and genetic data easily accessible to researchers in Europe and worldwide. Opened to the public in 2016, EBiSC is a joint undertaking of the Innovative Medicines initiative of the European Commission, and the European Federation of Pharmaceutical Institutes and Associations (EFPIA), in collaboration with a consortium of international experts from the iPSC community in academia, government and business. The paper identifies opportunities for this largescale resource through collaboration across the public and private sectors, and highlights challenges encountered during its establishment with regard to cell line provenance, a multiplicity of actors and interests, intellectual property rights restrictions, ownership of banked material, and management of access to genetic data.
EN
Background: Psychosocial risks, via stress mechanism, may negatively influence employees’ health and work activity. Both the scale and the type of these risks depend on job specificity in particular occupation or sector. The aim of the study was to characterize the categories of stressors occurring in the banking sector and their effects on employees’ performance. Material and Methods: The studied subjects were 484 employees tested with the questionnaire method. The Scale of Psychosocial Risk was used as a research tool. Results: The more the employees are exposed to threats connected with work content, work context, pathologies and specific factor, the less satisfied they are and the more frequently they declare turnover intention. However, rarely does it change their engagement or absence. The subjects felt the effects of risks, regardless of their stressfulness. It turns out that individual’s well-being is rather related to work context, e.g. relations with co-workers or salary, than to the character of tasks. It was observed, that with age, employees are less resistant to work context related to threats, which results in frequent absence. Conclusions: Most of the results comply with the literature data. The work environment diagnosis may be based only on the occurrence of psychosocial risks, regardless of the subjectively experienced stress. The conclusions can be used by both employers and specialists in occupational stress prevention. Med Pr 2014;65(4):507–519
PL
Wstęp: Psychospołeczne zagrożenia zawodowe za pośrednictwem mechanizmu stresu mogą negatywnie oddziaływać na zdrowie i funkcjonowanie pracowników. Zarówno skala, jak i rodzaj tych zagrożeń uzależniony jest od specyfiki pracy w danym zawodzie czy branży. Celem pracy była charakterystyka kategorii stresorów występujących w branży bankowej, a także ich skutków dla funkcjonowania pracowników. Materiał i metody: Analizie poddano wyniki uzyskane metodą kwestionariuszową od 484 badanych. Jako narzędzie badawcze wykorzystano Skalę Ryzyka Psychospołecznego. Wyniki: Im bardziej pracownicy są narażeni na występowanie i stresogenność zagrożeń związanych z treścią pracy, kontekstem pracy, patologiami i czynnikiem specyficznym dla branży, tym bardziej czują się niezadowoleni i częściej deklarują chęć zmiany pracy. Rzadko jednak przekłada się to na ich zaangażowanie lub absencję. Badani odczuwali skutki pewnych zagrożeń, nawet jeżeli nie oceniali ich jako stresujące. Okazuje się, że dla dobrostanu jednostki bardziej istotny może być kontekst pracy (np. relacje z innymi czy wynagrodzenie) niż to, czym się ona zajmuje. Zaobserwowano również, że wraz z wiekiem pracownicy gorzej reagują na zagrożenia związane z kontekstem pracy, co objawia się częstszą absencją. Wnioski: Większość uzyskanych wyników pokrywa się z danymi literaturowymi. Diagnozę środowiska pracy można oprzeć tylko na wskaźnikach występowania zagrożeń psychospołecznych, pomijając subiektywne odczuwanie stresu. Wnioski z badania mogą posłużyć zarówno pracodawcom, jak i specjalistom zajmującym się prewencją stresu zawodowego. Med. Pr. 2014;65(4):507–519
PL
Ochrona zdrowia jest jednym z najważniejszych obszarów polityki społecznej każdego państwa. Choć usługi medyczne z uwagi na swój charakter mogą istnieć jako dobra prywatne, w większości krajów świadczenia zdrowotne są, w mniejszym lub większym stopniu, dostarczane przez sektor publiczny i wykorzystywane zbiorowo przez społeczeństwo. Celem niniejszego artykułu jest analiza wydatków na ochronę zdrowia w Polsce, ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem finansowania ochrony zdrowia w ramach sektora publicznego oraz prywatnego. Za hipotezę przyjęto, iż wzrost wydatków na ochronę zdrowia prowadzi do rozwoju prywatnego sektora opieki zdrowotnej. W wyniku wykonanej analizy wskazano, iż wzrost wydatkowania na ochronę zdrowia może się stać impulsem do rozwoju prywatnego sektora opieki zdrowotnej.
EN
Health protection is one of the most important topic of social policy of each country. Although medical services, can exist as private goods, in most countries health services are mostly provided by the public sector and used collectively by society. The purpose of this article is to analyse the healthcare expenditures in Poland, with particular emphasis on financing health care within the public and private sector. The hypothesis assumes that the increase in health care expenditure leads to the development of private health care sector. As a result of conducted analysis, it was pointed out that the increase in spending on health care could become an impulse for the development of private health care sector.
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EN
The article describes commercial bribery in Estonia. The author focused mainly on analysing the normative structures of the Estonian Penal Code. The work includes elements specific to the local legal system, such as the link between corporate liability and criminal liability. The author proves that Estonian legal practices could be succesfully implemented into Polish law.
PL
W artykule została opisana korupcja w sektorze prywatnym w Estonii. Autor skupił się głównie na analizie konstrukcji normatywnych znajdujących się w estońskim kodeksie karnym. W pracy można znaleźć elementy specyficzne dla tamtejszego systemu prawa, w szczególności odpowiedzialność osób prawnych przedstawiającą się jako odpowiedzialność karna. Autor udowadnia, że doświadczenia estońskie mogą być cenne dla polskiego ustawodawcy.
PL
W artykule eksplorowano zjawisko sieciowości w zarządzaniu, a szczególnie zachowań sieciowych pracowników w sektorze prywatnym i publicznym. Przedstawiono zakres dokonań naukowych w tym zakresie, wskazując na potrzebę dalszych dogłębnych analiz w sektorze publicznym. Zaplanowano i przeprowadzono kwestionariuszowe badanie empiryczne (373 respondentów), odwołując się do światowego dorobku w tym obszarze i adaptując narzędzie badawcze. Przeprowadzono analizy statystyczne i zweryfikowano hipotezy. Potwierdzono, że większą częstotliwość zachowań sieciowych wykazują pracownicy sektora prywatnego niż publicznego.
EN
The article explores the phenomenon of networking in management—specifically, employee networking behavior in the private and public sectors. What is presented is the scope of up–to–date findings in this field, simultaneously pointing out the need for further in–depth analysis in the public sector. An empirical study questionnaire involving 373 respondents was designed and conducted with reference to world achievements in this field while adapting research tools. Statistical analyses were conducted and the hypothesis was verified. It was confirmed that private sector employees engage in networking behavior more frequently than the public sector employees.
PL
W artykule poruszono problematykę międzysektorowego zróżnicowania wynagrodzeń w Polsce. W literaturze wnioski odnośnie do kierunku zależności wynagrodzeń od sektora są niespójne. Celem było zbadanie sytuacji w Polsce. Dodatkowo, analizowano, jak kształtuje się luka międzysektorowa wzdłuż rozkładu wynagrodzeń. Użyto regresji kwantylowej i danych z Badania Struktury Wynagrodzeń według Zawodów w październiku 2012 roku. Rezultaty wskazują, że wyższe wynagrodzenia otrzymywali pracownicy sektora prywatnego. Wyniki dekompozycji Oaxaci−Blindera pokazały, że czynnik dotyczący różnic w charakterystykach pracowników odpowiada za przeważającą część międzysektorowej różnicy wynagrodzeń.
EN
In the paper, we examine the issue of public-private wage gap in Poland. The literature, in regards to the correlation of salaries and sector, brings contradictory evidences. The aim of the article is to explore the situation in Poland. Additionally, the gap was analyzed among the wage distribution. The quantile regression and the data from the Survey of Wages and Salaries in October 2012 were used. The results indicate that private sector employees received higher wages. According to Oaxaca–Blinder decomposition, the gap results mostly from the part that is explained by the differences in observed characteristics between workers.
PL
Celem rozważań w artykule jest wykazanie na przykładzie duńskiego systemu kształcenia zawodowego, że interwencje państwa dla realizacji celów polityki edukacyjnej i migracyjnej odbywają się na styku różnych polityk społecznych i mogą być podporządkowane potrzebom sektora prywatnego. Przedmiotem analizy są reformy duńskiego państwa opiekuńczego po 2008 r., tj. po początkowych latach globalnego kryzysu finansowego. Wiodącą metodą badawczą jest studium literatury przedmiotu dotyczące duńskiego systemu kształcenia zawodowego (w tym raportów komórek rządowych) oraz analiza zagregowanych danych o rozmiarach i strukturze emigracji oraz reformach rynku pracy (baza LABREF). Przeprowadzone w Danii reformy oddziaływały zarówno na stronę popytową (przedsiębiorcy, oferujący staże w systemie dualnym) i podażową (uczestnicy szkoleń, przyszli pracownicy). Reformy przyjęły formę głównie bodźców negatywnych dla strony podażowej, związanych z przyjętą strategią zaostrzania kryteriów przyjmowania imigrantów i ich rodzin oraz silniejszego wiązania prawa do pobytu z obowiązkiem kształcenia się. Pracodawcom, reprezentującym rozdrobiony sektor prywatny, państwo udzieliło wsparcia w formie subsydiowania miejsc pracy. Charakter interwencji państwa można wyjaśnić tradycją autonomii sektora prywatnego w kraju (i pośrednią, mediatorską rolą państwa) oraz jego trudną sytuacją w czasie kryzysu lat 2007–2008. Wzmożona kontrola napływającego kapitału ludzkiego jest konieczna dla zapewnienia sektorowi prywatnemu podaży kwalifikacji niezbędnych do produkcji na eksport. Silna pozycja sektora prywatnego w duńskiej gospodarce jest także jednym z czynników tłumaczących, dlaczego podmioty trzeciego sektora, w tym uniwersytety ludowe, pełnią ograniczoną rolę w oferowaniu usług edukacji zawodowej.
EN
The aim of this article is to explain that state interventions needed for realisation of educational and migration policy’s goals are made at the intersection of different social policies and in cooperation with private sector. The analysis is based on the Danish vocational education system and includes a review of the Danish welfare state’s reforms after 2008. For purposes of the analysis recent literature about the Danish vocational training system was reviewed, data on migration flows and structure as well were evaluated and recent social policy reforms in Denmark were studied. Welfare state reforms in Denmark were directed towards both demand and supply side – private companies offering training places and training participants, respectively. The reforms took mainly the form of negative stimuli for the supply side, meaning stricter criteria for migrant intake and family reunification as well as stronger conditioning of stay upon the ability to engage in continuing education. The demand side, represented by a fragmented private sector, gained financial support to be able to provide training places to students. These policy actions can be explained by the tradition of private sector autonomy and hence an indirect state role in industrial policy. State interventions were nevertheless needed to help private sector recover from the crisis 2008–2009 and be able to meet export policy goals. Furthermore, the privileged position of private sector in vocational education helps understand the limited role of third sector in Denmark, in the article represented by folk high schools, in providing vocational training.
PL
The paper analyzes the changing public-private dynamics in higher education in Poland in 1990-2016 and beyond, focusing on the processes of internal and external de-privatization of the system. De-privatization of higher education – viewed also as its republicization – is caused by declining demographics and may lead to the demise of the largely demand-absorbing private higher education. Poland is shown as moving against the two powerful global trends related to privatization: private sector growth and increasing reliance on cost-sharing. Data related to funding and provision in 1990-2005 (expansion) and 2006 and beyond (contraction) are analyzed in detail, and policy implications of ongoing and expected changes are discussed.
EN
Determination of persons capable of carrying criminal liability for acts of corruption is essential for understanding corruption in both sectors: public and private. The paper analyzed international anti-corruption documents adopted by global and regional international governmental organizations as well as polish law. The main object of the paper is to identify the definitions and scope of understanding of subjects of the corruption offences in the national public sector such us: „public officer” and „person who perform public function”, as well as „foreign entities” operating in the international level and subject of the private sector.
PL
Określenie kręgu podmiotów zdolnych do ponoszenia odpowiedzialności karnej za czyny korupcyjne ma kluczowe znaczenie dla zrozumienia korupcji w obu sektorach: publicznym i prywatnym. W opracowaniu poddano analizie dokumenty odnoszące się do zjawiska korupcji przyjmowane pod auspicjami międzynarodowych organizacji rządowych o charakterze powszechnym i regionalnym oraz przepisy prawa krajowego. Głównym zamierzeniem było określenie zakresu znaczeniowego poszczególnych kategorii podmiotów krajowych w sektorze publicznym, tj.: „funkcjonariusza publicznego” oraz „osoby pełniącej funkcję publiczną”, jak również „podmiotów zagranicznych” funkcjonujących w wymiarze międzynarodowym, całość dopełnia określenie podmiotów sektora prywatnego.
EN
The paper aims to discuss the notion of revenue management in Adam Krzyżanowski thought. The paper makes an overview of his views on issues such as: the relationship between revenue management and economics, the notion of revenue management, the subject and scope of the science of revenue management, as well as the issues relating to the private and public sector. To get a broader perspective, A. Krzyżanowski's views on these issues are compared with the views of other Polish economists. The above listed aspects should be seen as an introduction that helps in understanding author's view on public finance and economics. The theory of public finance is crucial for how public finance is used in practice. Having that in mind, as well as for scientific and educational reasons, studies on revenue management systems should remain at the centre of economic thought.
PL
Celem artykułu jest omówienie pojęcia skarbowości w myśli Adama Krzyżanowskiego. W opracowaniu zaprezentowano jego poglądy odnośnie do takich zagadnień, jak: relacje między skarbowością a ekonomią, pojęcie skarbowości, przedmiot oraz zakres nauki skarbowości, a także zagadnienia gospodarstwa prywatnego i gospodarstwa państwowego. Zapatrywania A. Krzyżanowskiego na te zagadnienia zostały porównane z poglądami innych polskich ekonomistów, w celu uzyskania szerszej perspektywy. Przedstawione powyżej kwestie stanowią wstęp do zrozumienia poglądów autora w zakresie finansów publicznych oraz ekonomii. Problematyka teorii finansów publicznych ma kluczowy wpływ na praktyczną umiejętność posługi-wania się finansami publicznymi. W związku z tym oraz ze względów naukowych i pedagogicznych badania systemów skarbowych powinny zajmować istotne miejsce w myśli ekonomicznej.
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