On Redundancy in Describing Linguistic SystemsThe notion of system of linguistic elements figures prominently in most post-Saussurian linguistics up to the present. A “system” is the network of the contrastive (or, distinctive) features each element in the system bears to the remaining elements. The meaning (valeur) of each element in the system is the set of features that are necessary and jointly sufficient to distinguish this element from all others. The paper addresses the problems of “redundancy”, i.e. the occurrence of features that are not strictly necessary in describing an element in a system. Redundancy is shown to smuggle into the description of linguistic systems, this infelicitous practice illustrated with some examples from the literature (e.g. the classical phonemic analysis of Russian by Cherry, Halle, and Jakobson, 1953). The logic and psychology of the occurrence of redundancy are briefly sketched and it is shown that, in addition to some other problems, redundancy leads to a huge and unresolvable ambiguity of descriptions of linguistic systems (the Buridan’s ass problem).
English as a lingua franca (henceforth ELF) is a contact language that has attracted great attention due to its unique global role. Thus, numerous studies have been conducted to determine its characteristics, among which research on such processes as, for example, simplification, added prominence or redundancy underlying language use in the ELF context is of the main interest. Therefore, the paper aims to broaden the per- spective on redundancy in ELF, focusing on negative and modal concord in spoken and written data. With the reliance on VOICE, ELFA, and WrELFA corpora, the analysis shows that both phenomena are noticeable in ELF; however, while redundancy in terms of modal concord appears in spoken and written ELF, negative concord is characteristic only of spoken data.
The paper attempts to answer the question whether, in the case of rapid changes such as we currently observe in Polish, a linguist is able to determine if these changes are systemic, i.e. permanent, or remain at the stage of innovation, i.e. are temporary – and hence, whether he or she can declare a change in the linguistic standard and set to looking for its cause. The focus of the article is on the law of speech economy, redundancy, and frequency which is the most important factor correlated with change, as without it the optimal conditions for a phonetic process would not occur .
Monographs of local rural communities played an important role in Polish sociology until the 1970s. They had been preceded by numerous sociographic descriptions and social surveys made already in the first half of the 19th century.Numerous critical remarks made about classical (descriptive, encyclopedic) monographs, which stressed that such accounts lacked a representative character and provided no material for formulating general conclusions, that they represented a synchronic and not a diachronic approach and contained redundant details, were justified. However, the best monographs in Polish sociology met all the strict methodological requirements and their most important value was a reliable description of social reality, which has been neglected since the moment of the popularization of research conducted with the help of questionnaires that concentrate mainly on the analysis of the respondents’ awareness. Traditional monographs seem to represent an interesting approach to scientific investigations, even from the point of view of present dilemmas in social sciences (the postulated restraint on the part of the author, incoherence of culture, the researcher’s ethos, science’s non-involvement in temporary matters). Therefore, it is worth examining this inconsiderately abandoned genre of sociological literature.
The rules of opinion journalism, presented in numerous source materials, indicate that an opinion article is constructed in line with the argumentative order: the right selection of arguments is to result in proving a thesis put forward in the text. However, more and more frequently opinion journalists offer the readers an attempt at finding out about the meanderings of politics or the economy single-handedly: temporal narration ordering fragments of texts allows to trace events “frame by frame”. Short sentences, nominal statements, verbs impersonal forms, in the present tense: the reader has no problem with following them. The reader learns about the answers to basic questions important in construing journalism information. Creation of some sort of a report is a transformation stage in an opinion journalist’s work; to a reader this is an extra and superfluous element. The phenomenon of temporality is also related to the fact that the analysed texts are about themselves: by resorting to the first person singular/plural, the author or authors describe their journalist activities, meetings with specific individuals (sources of information), problems with data verification, sometimes with obtaining data. In the course of analyses, the following relation emerges: redundancy – condensation necessitating a more in-depth analysis with respect to the rules underlying contemporary opinion journalism genres.
In previously published papers (Przegląd Sejmowy no. 5(142)/2017 and 2(163)/2021) the authors proposed definitions of notions: normativity, redundancy, and uselessness of the legal text and analysed from a typological point of view the basic units of the integral (articulated) part of normative acts, i.e. legal provisions. In this text, the analysis has been extended to include the other elements of the legal text, i.e.: preambles, titles, subtitles, definitions in brackets, footnotes and attachments, which contain sentences and other elements (tables, equations, graphics, maps, sheet music). The terminology has also been extended to include fragments of provisions, normative acts as a whole, and plural provisions. These elements can (with some definitional amendments) be analysed in the same way as provisions using the categories: “doubles”, “widows”, “orphans”, and “botches”. In their closing remarks, the authors signaled the need to complement the analysis with a theoretical and comparative perspectives: to confront the proposed theses with the leading normative and descriptive theories of legal text drafting and interpretation. The fourth part of this cycle of papers, devoted to these problems, is currently being prepared.
In a previously published article (Przegląd Sejmowy No. 5(142)/2017) the authors proposed definitions of the following concepts: normativity, redundancy and uselessness of a legal text. The article provides a typological review of Polish legal texts. The authors analysed the basic units of the integral (articulated) part of normative acts, i.e. legal provisions, showing their normativity, redundancy, and uselessness. The analyse includes: internal preambles, provisions describing the object and subject scope of the act, legal principles, programme and task provisions, meliorative provisions, emendations, permanently unrealisable regulations, legal definitions. The analyses led to identification of four basic types of errors in legal provisions, which were named: “doubles”, “widows”, “orphans”, and “botches”. In their closing remarks, the authors signalled the need to supplement the analysis with a description of non-integral (non-articulated) parts of normative acts. Another part of the study, devoted to these problems, is currently being prepared.
The paper presents the censored fragments of Mircea Ivănescu’s Romanian translation of Truman Capote’s Other Voices, Other Rooms, published by Univers Publishing House in 1978, as well as the translator’s (or the censor’s?) contribution to the “edulcoration” of certain details that did not comply with the Communist ethics of the late 1970s; it also discusses the reason why the Romanian version underwent a purging process at the time. Another issue tackled in the paper is the appraisal of Ivănescu’s merits and demerits as a renowned translator, in general, and as the translator of Capote’s novel, in particular.
Probabilistic models have been developed to evaluate the relationship between reliability measures and the performance of a repairable network with built in redundancy. Networks with built in redun-dancy have been considered and explicit expressions have been derived for three characteristics related to such systems including steady-state availability, period of repair, and a profit function. Various graphs have been plotted to discover the impact of availability and mean time to system failure on net profit, as well as the impact of the failure and service rate on the steady-state availability, net profit and mean time to system failure. The system was analysed using first order linear differential equations.
This paper presents the phenomenon of anticipation which is one of the manifestations of linguistic maturity and language user rationality. Anticipation, taking place essentially in implicit structures and based on evolutionary old intuition, improves speech comprehension and increases the efficiency of cognitive processes. The phenomenon in question is presented on the example of foreign language communication, because it is there that the mechanisms governing the formulation of accurate hypotheses about form and content are particularly evident. The first part of the article discusses speech perception, and with it the categorization and selection of an appropriate cognitive schema conditioning accurate anticipation. The second part presents factors that facilitate and hinder the right hypothesis. Finally, conclusions and directions for future research on anticipation are formulated.
The paper outlines a research perspective in reference to literary grammar. A philological analysis of literary texts allows an insight into several peculiar manifestations of grammatical dynamic assuming that texts have linguistic potentiality determined by various factors. These factors include syntagmaticity, specificity of situational language use in reference to repeatable textual elements, categorization mechanisms or – in a slightly different conceptualization – textual fluidity. Examples discussed in this paper are an introduction to basic elements significant in grammar-oriented analyses. Ambiguity and redundancy are identified as two most significant issues.
PL
Artykuł stanowi próbę nakreślenia perspektywy badawczej w odniesieniu do gramatyki literatury. Filologiczny sposób analizy tekstów literackich skłania autora do przyjrzenia się kilku swoistym przejawom dynamiki gramatycznej przy założeniu, że tekstom przynależna jest językowa potencjalność determinowana przez różne czynniki. Wśród nich wymienia się przestrzenność struktury wiersza (syntagmatyczność), specyfikę sytuacyjnego użycia języka z odniesieniem do powtarzalnych elementów tekstotwórczych, mechanizmy kategoryzacji czy – w nieco innym ujęciu – płynność tekstu. Omówione przykłady tekstów literackich stanowią wprowadzenie podstawowych elementów istotnych w podejmowaniu prób analitycznych skoncentrowanych na zjawiskach gramatycznych. Wśród problemów najistotniejszych wskazuje się niejednokształtność i redundancję.
Management as a science is still evolving. The perception of this by socio-ecological relations is also changing. As a result, alternative concepts are emerging that consider current challenges. The 4th industrial revolution also causes changes, creates new products and services, and forces changes on the labor market. Different conditions for running a business are created, considered based on unprecedented criteria. Building the company's strategy plays an important role in this. The publication refers to the research of Rafał Krupski and his concept of creating a strategy with the requirements of identifying opportunities and defining the redundancy of resources and competences. This concept is confronted with the assumptions of the theory of social and ecological management.
PL
Zarządzanie jako nauka wciąż ewoluuje. Postrzeganie zarządzania przez relacje społeczno- ekologiczne również się zmienia. Powstają w związku z tym alternatywne koncepcje uwzględniające aktualne wyzwania. Czwarta rewolucja przemysłowa kreuje powstawanie nowych produktów, usług, wymusza zmianę na rynku pracy. Powstają inne warunki prowadzenia działalności gospodarczej, rozpatrywane w oparciu o niespotykane do tej pory kryteria. Ważne w tym miejsce zajmuje budowanie strategii przedsiębiorstwa. W publikacji nawiązuje się do badań Rafała Krupskiego i jego koncepcji kreowania strategii z wymogami identyfikacji okazji i zdefiniowania redundancji zasobów i kompetencji.
Background: Supply chain risk management increasingly gains prominence in many international industries. In order to strengthen supply chain structures, processes, and networks, adequate potentials for risk management need to be built (focus on effective logistics) and to be utilized (focus on efficient logistics). Natural-based disasters, such as the case of Fukushima, illustrate how crucial risk management is. Method: By aligning a theoretical-conceptual framework with empirical-inductive findings, it may be hypothesized that logistical systems do have a positive effect on supply chain risk management activities. Result/conclusion: Flexibility and capacity, as well as redundancy and standardization, are often viewed as being conflictionary. It shows, however, that in the light of supply chain risk management, those factors may yield a common benefit if proper logistics systems are applied.
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Wstęp: Zarządzania ryzykiem łańcucha dostaw zyskuje coraz większe znaczenie w wielu międzynarodowych branżach. W celu wzmocnienia struktur łańcucha dostaw, procesów i sieci, należy stworzyć odpowiednie potencjały dla zarządzania ryzykiem (skoncentrowane na efektywnej logistyce) a następnie je stosować (koncentrując się na wydajnej logistyce). Katastrofy naturalne, takie jak na przykład ostatnio Fukushima, pokazują jak istotne jest odpowiednie zarządzanie ryzykiem. Metody: Zestawiając teoretyczno-koncepcyjne założenia z rezultatami emipryczno-indukcyjnymi, można postawić hipotezę, że systemy logistyczne posiadają pozytywny efekt na zarządzanie ryzykiem łańcucha dostaw. Wyniki i wnioski: Elastyczność i wydajność, jak również redukcja i standaryzacja, są często postrzegane jako elementy konfliktowe. Aczkolwiek, rozważając zagadnienia związane z zarządzaniem ryzykiem łańcucha dostaw, czynniki te mogą przyczynić się do wspólnie osiągniętych korzyści, pod warunkiem prawidłowo skonstruowanych systemów logistycznych.
The present paper discusses diverse aspects of pleonasms in different types of German discourses. Pleonasm, similarly to tautology, is a strongly criticised phenomenon, not only by regular language users, but also by linguists, especially lexicographers. It does not change the fact, that it is widely used in different discourse types, especially in spoken and technical ones. It appears also on different levels of the language structure. It occurs that it is a mechanism of the language use and it should not be treated a priori as a mistake, because it is a specific language universal, present in different languages around the world.
The theory of rational lawgiver entails an assumption of normativeness of legal text. The assumption can be expressed in two propositions: (1) articulated parts of legal text are normative, and (2) other parts of legal text (i.e. preambles, titles of acts, parts, chapters etc.) are not normative. Closer examination of Polish legal text shows that propositions (1)–(2) are not necessarily always true. The authors propose several defi nitions and use the enriched vocabulary to express theoretical possibility and to show real cases of non-normative fragments of articulated parts of legal texts and normative fragments of other parts of legal text. The types of normativeness are defi ned: the broadest, broad, and strict. The notion of normativeness is tightly connected with notions of redundancy and superfl uity of legal texts. The distinctions which were made in the article can be used — as the authors hint in the conclusion remarks — to expand contemporary theories of legal interpretation, and to improve the quality of lawmaking process in Poland.
Media interviews with politicians are messages which shape the views of the audience regarding the phenomena in the world and affect the hierarchy of importance in broadcasts. An analysis of interviews with politicians reveals that the communication purposes of the participants are often divergent and the interlocutors themselves consider on another to be opponents. The rejection of the very idea of conversation as a setting for an agreement sets a new goal: victory, an interlocutor’s particular benefit. These communication conditions provide a setting where redundancy works perfectly as camouflage. The broadcaster in the media, who cares about achieving the implicit purpose of communication, may treat redundancy as a mask – consciously hiding behind multiplicity makes the recipient bear the burden of responsibility for misunderstanding the message or treat what is obtained explicitly from the broadcaster as an indicator to look for meanings. In the paper, two main ranges were distinguished: party messages and universal phrases, indirectly defining the basic tasks of redundancy. The former suggest ways politicians reply to the journalists’ questions; the latter serve to provide statements oscillating around the issue – their generality, predictability and non‑ controversiality makes them fit in almost any topic and political option.
The article considers the institution of return of expropriated estate. The first part of the text is devoted to the expropriation itself as an imperious construction of public law in the light of elementary constitutional rules of Polish law order. Expropriation has been described by pointing and considering its particular premises, both positive and negative. The main part is focused on the statutory institution of return of expropriated estate, stated by Article 136 et seq of Real Estate Management Act of August 21, 1997, around which, according to the series of expropriations performed at the time of Polish postwar political system creation, a lot of legal doubts have arisen. The article deliberates each of significant premises of return, for instance the acknowledgement of estate as redundant for expropriation purposes (which seems not to be discussed in legal doctrine), deliberating the main points of doctrine and judicature. The text comes up with a few important de lege ferenda proposals in order to shape abovementioned construction distinctly.
PL
Artykuł dotyczy instytucji zwrotu wywłaszczonej nieruchomości. Pierwsza część jest poświęcona nakreśleniu wywłaszczenia jako władczej konstrukcji prawa publicznego w świetle elementarnych zasad konstytucyjnych oraz całego polskiego porządku prawnego. Wywłaszczenie opisano, wymieniając i omawiając poszczególne jego przesłanki, zarówno pozytywne, jak i negatywne. We właściwej części tekstu autor skupia się na ustawowej instytucji zwrotu wywłaszczonej nieruchomości, opisanej w art. 136 i n. ustawy z dnia 21 sierpnia 1997 r. o gospodarce nieruchomościami, wokół której – w świetle serii wywłaszczeń dokonanych w trakcie rozwoju powojennego systemu politycznego Polski – narosło sporo wątpliwości prawnych. W opracowaniu jest rozważana każda istotna przesłanka zwrotu, między innymi kwestia uznania nieruchomości za zbędną na cele wywłaszczenia (w doktrynie wydaje się ona być niedyskutowana należycie), z omówieniem przy tym głównych poglądów doktryny i orzecznictwa. Autor wysuwa kilka istotnych postulatów de lege ferenda w celu jaśniejszego ukształtowania wyżej wymienionej konstrukcji.
Cities on the development path face many different origins of threats, risks and catastrophes, generally referred to as stressors. Currently, in the conditions of globalization, apart from traditional threats, new ones appear (global economic crises, climate change, terrorist threats, pandemics, such as recently Covid-19, etc.), the effects of which are often difficult to predict. Such a situation prompts us to take actions aimed at avoiding or mitigating the effects of stressors, and as a result ensuring the sustainability of urban development. So it is about building city resilience. In this article, the city is treated as a complex, dynamic system, the duration and development of which depends on appropriate planning of activities aimed at building city resilience. Resilience is understood not in static terms, but rather as the ability to flexibly adjust, or adapt, to changing conditions. A sequence of actions is indicated that should be followed in planning processes in order to properly prepare the city system for potential risks and threats. It is about identifying stressors, studying the sensitivity of the city system to their impact, analyzing the possible effects of a stressor and adopting a specific action strategy. The importance of redundancy, civil society, the need to analyze the distribution of threats and risks in the city space and their changes over time is emphasized.
PL
Miasta na ścieżce rozwoju napotykają wiele różnego pochodzenia zagrożeń, ryzyk i katastrof, nazywanych ogólnie stresorami. Obecnie, w warunkach globalizacji, oprócz tradycyjnych zagrożeń pojawiają się wciąż nowe (globalne kryzysy gospodarcze, zmiany klimatyczne, zagrożenia terrorystyczne, pandemie, jak w ostatnim czasie Covid-19 itp.), których skutki często są trudne do przewidzenia. Sytuacja taka skłania do podejmowania działań, mających na celu unikanie lub łagodzenie efektów oddziaływania stresorów, a przez to zapewnienie trwałości rozwoju miast. Chodzi więc o budowanie city resilience. W niniejszym artykule miasto traktowane jest jako złożony, dynamiczny system, którego trwanie i rozwój zależy od odpowiedniego planowania działań na rzecz budowania odporności miast. Resilience rozumiane jest przy tym nie w kategoriach statycznych, ale raczej jako umiejętność elastycznego dopasowywania się czy adaptowania do zmieniających się uwarunkowań. Wskazywana jest sekwencja działań, które w procesach planistycznych powinny zostać zachowane, aby odpowiednio przygotować system miasta na potencjalne ryzyka i zagrożenia. Chodzi o identyfikację stresorów, badanie wrażliwości systemu miasta na ich oddziaływanie, analizę możliwych skutków działania stresora oraz przyjęcie konkretnej strategii działania. Podkreślane jest przy tym znaczenie redundancji, społeczeństwa obywatelskiego, analizy rozmieszczenia zagrożeń i ryzyk w przestrzeni miasta oraz ich zmian w czasie.
This text constitutes a contrastive analysis of lexical economy and redundancy in verbal expressions. For this purpose, a bilateral study of the diacritical examples is carried out in two selected languages: English and Spanish. The analysis is based on a manual parallel corpus, which consists of verbal expressions collected in two versions of the same narrative literature text: A moveable feast / París era una fiesta by Ernest Hemingway. Our task is, above all, to compare the numerical data obtained after the census with the theories elaborated by the typological tradition. Taking into account the defining parameters of the phenomenon of economy, we establish its scale based on the empirical analysis of expressions with movement verb - one of the fundamental verb classes. These references lead us to the conclusion which language of the two listed above is more economic and which is more redundant in the lexical perspective.
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Analiza wyrażeń z czasownikami ruchu w kontekście ekonomii i redundancji leksykalnej: Studium kontrastywne angielsko-hiszpańskieGłównym tematem niniejszego artykułu jest zjawisko ekonomii i redundancji leksykalnej w wyrażeniach czasownikowych. W tym celu została przeprowadzona analiza kontrastywna przykładów diakrytycznych w dwóch wybranych językach: angielskim i hiszpańskim. Badanie oparte jest na manualnym korpusie równoległym, składającym się z przykładów zebranych w dwóch wersjach tego samego literackiego: A moveable feast / París era una fiesta Ernesta Hemingwaya. Zadaniem autorki było przede wszystkim porównanie danych liczbowych uzyskanych z korpusu z teoriami istniejącymi w tradycji typologicznej. Biorąc pod uwagę parametry definiujące zjawisko ekonomii, została ustalona jego skala, która bazuje na analizie wyrażeń zawierających czasowniki ruchu. Odniesienia te doprowadzają do ustalenia, który język z dwóch wymienionych wyżej jest bardziej ekonomiczny, a który bardziej redundantny na płaszczyźnie leksykalnej. Análisis de las expresiones con verbos de movimiento en función de economía y redundancia léxicas: estudio contrastivo inglés-españolEl presente texto constituye un análisis contrastivo de economía y redundancia léxicas en las expresiones verbales. Para este objetivo se realiza un estudio bilateral de los ejemplos diacríticos en dos lenguas seleccionadas: inglés e español. El análisis se basa en un corpus paralelo, que consta de expresiones con verbos recogidos en dos versiones del mismo texto de literatura narrativa de Ernest Hemingway: A moveable feast y su traducción española: París era una fiesta. Nuestra tarea es de confrontar los datos numéricos obtenidos tras el censo con las teorías elaboradas por la tradición tipológica. Teniendo en consideración los parámetros definitorios del fenómeno de economía establecemos su índice numérico basado en el análisis empírico de las expresiones con una de las clases fundamentales de los verbos, los de movimiento. Estas referencias nos llevan a la conclusión de qué lengua de las dos citadas más arriba es realmente más económica y cuál es más redundante en el plano léxico.
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