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EN
The annexation of Crimea and the war in eastern Ukraine have significantly altered the security infrastructure in Eastern Europe and impacted the Belarusian authorities, who have begun to pay more attention to the condition of their country’s military. The text examines the structure of Belarusian armed forces and their military relations with Russia. Regional defence alliances, such as the Collective Security Treaty Organisation (CSTO) or military cooperation (joint exercises and industrial cooperation) between Belarus and its allies are also reviewed, along with the condition of the Belarusian armed forces and their ability to defend the country’s territory.
EN
It is beyond doubt that contemporary China is a superpower in many aspects. China's economic growth has been increasing for many years now, some experts say that is also becoming a military superpower that may soon dominate the world and challenge America. Is this true? My task will be to answer this question during my research through comprehensive analysis of all basic areas connected with the power of the modern army. My research shows the changes that took place in the Chinese army throughout the last decade: ranging from changes in the officer corp, through changes affecting the army as a whole, to changes that are directly connected with the approach to a common soldier. My research is especially focused on analyzing the technological revolution that took place in the PLA over the last few years in the fields of army, air forces, as well as marine and strategic forces. Moreover, my goal was to compare all the mentioned changes with the trends that one can observe worldwide. All this gives the opportunity to build a correct view of the actual PLA potential, which in fact is still quite low, in spite of all the fast modernization. It seems that the PLA still remains a «paper tiger» that will not be able to threat the global position of the US, at least over next decade.
EN
The aim of this article is to identify the lessons and challenges concerning e-learning in military organisations. The study analyses the cases of the U.S. Armed Forces and NATO distance learning programmes. Firstly, it points out cultural, technological, organisational and financial barriers to develop efficient and effective e-learning solutions in the military environment. Secondly, it discusses the challenges to measure the effectiveness of such initiatives. Thirdly, it presents the NATO attempts to combine technological, economic and pedagogical issues in one comprehensive e-learning concept. Then, it discusses the potential of e-learning technologies applicability in the Polish Armed Forces. Finally, it provides the recommendations for the Polish Armed Forces how to plan and implement distance learning solutions.
EN
Until recently, honorary plaques were rarely the subject of studies by Polish historians. Only in recent years have studies been published discussing their nature and purpose. Unfortunately, due to their previous neglect, including by local authorities, many of these valuable objects were removed from their original place of exhibition, and some were even destroyed. One such plaque, requiring restoration, is from Reszel, commemorating soldiers from the local Roman Catholic parish who fell in the battles with Napoleon in the years 1813–1815. Before the Second World War this plaque was located outside the Church of Saints Peter and Paul, which could be dated to the refurnishing of its interior in 1822–1843. The table’s inscriptional field contains permanent and temporary elements. The former includes inscriptions with the names of fallen soldiers and their place of their origin. The second includes military ranks, names, places and dates of death, dates of birth, decorations received and others. The correct reading of these inscriptions – often written in the form of abbreviations – as well as their verification led to numerous findings, including those relating to units under whose banners fought soldiers from Reszel parish in individual battles with Napoleon.
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Medieval Georgian Poliorcetica

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EN
In the medieval art of war siege constituted one of the principal forms of fight. Several basic techniques were used in taking a stronghold, such as assaulting the walls of the fortress, breaching the wall, digging a subterranean tunnel under the wall and enfeeblement of the garrison by lengthy siege. Bearing in mind various data, in the Middle Ages Georgians used the following technical means to capture fortresses: assault ladders, battering rams and other engines for breaching walls, ballistas, stone throwing engines and subterranean tunnels. In the article light is shed on the siege capabilities of the Georgian army of the period. Extensively discussed are the Georgian army’s stone throwing artillery, various types of stone hurling engines and the time of their spread in Georgia. Various techniques of capturing fortresses, applied by the Georgians are described. These include mounting the walls with ladder or various improvised means. The hazardous technique of directly assaulting the fortress without preliminary preparation or bringing up heavy siege engines is shown. The capturing of fortresses by means of underground tunnels is discussed separately. By the available evidence it is not apparent that Georgians made use of all the siege techniques known in the medieval world; however, it can be said that they were familiar with and used successfully the basic methods of siege warfare.
EN
The Monastery in Poznań was founded in 1607 by Magdalena Mortęska - the reformer of the Benedictine Order. By analysing the monastic cornicles, the author wanted to show the influence of extra-ordinary events in Greater Poland and Poznan in 17th and 18th Century on life of enclosed nuns. The article describes what changed when people visited the monastery, what life of nuns looked like during epidemics, floods and other disasters that took place in Greater Poland. The influence of wars and quartering foreign armies in the city of Poznan on life of nuns in the Benedictine Monastery was also included.
EN
This study focuses on changes in British colonial policy and politics after the Seven Years’ War in North America. It deals primarily with the transformation of British economic policy towards its colonies. After the Seven Years’ War, the United Kingdom sought funds to strengthen defence of the newly acquired territories in North America. In 1764 the British parliament approved of the Sugar Act that tightened the customs service in America. The money raised by this law should have gone to the protection of the British Empire in North America. The study analyses the reasons for the transformation of British politics after the Seven Years’ War, as well as the impact of this policy on the relation between the mother country and its colonies in North America.
EN
The modern model of state education in Russia promotes patriotism and devotion to the authorities. Young people must be proud of their origin and, in spite of deteriorating material conditions, should stay in the country contributing to its development. Cadet Corps Alumni are an example of a patriotic education model. Several years of learning in the military school shapes their beliefs and teaches them complete surrender to authority. Patriotism, combined with the sense of external threat, has become the driving force behind the reconstruction of the Russian superpower. One of the cornerstones of the school is the acceptance of Putin’s Russia by spreading the vision of becoming an international representative of the country. The increase in military spending and functioning of military schools such as the Corps of Cadets give rise to fears that in the future Russia the army will become one of the tools of the superpower on the arena of foreign policy.
XX
W artykule przedstawiam wydatki wojskowe ogółem w milionach dolarów USA, w procentach PKB oraz siły zbrojne i szacunek rezerwistów w tysiącach osób. (fragment tekstu)
EN
The essay concentrates on one of the phenomena connected with clashes between the military element and the civilian population, demonstrations and forms of forceful physical aggression committed by the soldiers on the town citizens, including women, during the war conflict between 1618 and 1648. It will also categorize this aggression, reveal and describe its start-up mechanisms. The research is based on a study of sources from selected Czech towns primarily in the current Plzeň region.
EN
The study analyses the influence of Wilhelm II, German Emperor on the personnel policy in the armed forces between 1888–1918. It also describes the most crucial events in connection with the level of institutions of the Empire and highest Prussian institutions. The study looks for main actors of individual appointments and examines who was instrumental in key personnel appointments. The study’s conclusions are primarily based on analysing non-published sources from the Geheimes Staatsarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin-Dahlem, namely the Brandenburg-Preußisches Hausarchiv, Repositur 53, Kaiser Wilhelm II. und Familie. It is also based on reports of Austrian-Hungarian ambassadors in Berlin saved in the Haus-, Hof- und Staatsarchiv, Wien, namely Abteilung III. (Preußen). The author concludes that Wilhelm II’s personnel policy had three stages of development. At the beginning of his rule, he excitedly grasped the chance to “rejuvenate” the corps of generals of the armed forces and to surround himself with people who suited him — people who admired him, did not criticize him, and did not argue with him. From this perspective, he negatively influenced the state of the armed forces because (unlike his predecessors) he focused more on subjective factors rather than objective criteria when assessing the abilities of the members of the armed forces. After 1900, the second stage began, during which the Emperor accepted suggestions for promotions. The third stage — the significant decline of the Emperor’s influence on the personnel policy of armed forces — started after the scandals in 1907 and after the beginning of World War I. Wilhelm II’s influence on the personnel policy of armed forces can be (similarly to his influence on foreign and internal policies) described as chaotic, unsystematic, and in some instances even destructive, which is why he is partly responsible for the developments during World War I, including the takeover of political decisions by the leaders of the armed forces.
EN
The years 1919-1920 were among the most dramatic periods in the modern history of Ukraine. The uprising against the Hetman Pavlo Skoropadskyi at the end of 1918 led to the fall of the monarchy and the restoration of a republican form of government in the Directorate of the Ukrainian People’s Republic. The new government was immediately forced to fight against external enemies, the most dangerous of which were Russian Bolsheviks. The war in Ukraine between 1919-1920 was a war of manoeuvre. In such conditions the role of armoured trains was significant. These weapons appeared in the Army of the Directorate during the uprising against the Hetman. Initially, the trains were quite primitive, improvised constructions, but in the Spring of 1919 the Army of the Directorate took delivery of more advanced armoured trains, which were better armed and protected. Some of them were trophies captured from the Bolsheviks. The trains gradually became the main means of conducting armed conflict. At a specific moment they numbered in the tens. Up until the final days of armed operations by regular units of the Directorate Army (to November 1920), armoured trains were actively involved in operations. The article presents the main episodes in which armoured trains were used by the Directorate Army and a description of the unit organisation of this type of weapon.
PL
Lata 1919-1920 były jednym z najbardziej dramatycznych okresów w najnowszej historii Ukrainy. Powstanie przeciwko Hetmanowi Pawłowi Skoropadskiemu w końcu 1918 r. doprowadziło do upadku monar-chii i przywrócenia republikańskiej formy rządów w postaci Dyrektorii Ukraińskiej Republiki Ludowej. Nowy rząd natychmiast został zmuszony do walki z wrogami zewnętrznymi, z których najgroźniejszymi byli rosyjscy bol-szewicy. Wojna na Ukrainie w latach 1919-1920 miała charakter manewrowy. W takich warunkach znaczącą rolę odgrywały pociągi pancerne. Te środki bojowe pojawiły się w Armii Dyrektorii już w czasie powstania prze-ciwko Hetmanowi. Początkowo pociągi pancerne były dość prymitywnymi improwizowanymi konstrukcjami, ale wiosną 1919 r. Armia Dyrektorii otrzymała bardziej zaawansowane pociągi pancerne – lepiej uzbrojone i chronione. Niektóre z nich były trofeami zdobytymi na bolszewikach. Stopniowo pociągi pancerne stały się głównym środkiem walki zbrojnej. Ich liczba w pewnych okresach sięgała do dziesięciu. Aż do ostatnich dni walk regularnych oddziałów Armii Dyrektorii (do listopada 1920 r.) pociągi pancerne były aktywnie zaangażo-wane w walki. W artykule przedstawiono główne epizody użycia bojowego pociągów pancernych Armii Dyrek-torii oraz zarys organizacji jednostek tego rodzaju broni.
EN
The aim of the paper is to conceptualise the research problems on applying a project approach to managing military Lessons Learned processes. The following operational objectives have been established in order to achieve the aforementioned aim: (1) to analyse Lessons Learned processes in NATO and in the Polish Armed Forces; (2) to identify the scope and the assumptions of applying the project management methodology to managing military joint analyses within Lessons Learned processes; and (3) to identify research problems for further empirical surveys. The following research methods and techniques have been applied in order to achieve the objectives of the paper: the analysis of military documentation and literature, and the interviews with Lessons Learned practitioners representing the NATO Joint Analysis and Lessons Learned Centre (JALLC) and the Polish Armed Forces Doctrine and Training Centre (CDiS SZ).
EN
The article discusses the strength and functions of the quarter army (wojsko kwarciane) during the turbulent third interregnum and the first year of the reign of Sigismund III. Besides being highlighted in a study by Jan Wimmer, this problem has so far not been discussed in great detail in the literature regarding the subject. Thanks to gaining access to previously unused fiscal-military materials, it was possible to determine not only the size of this army in particular quarters of the period of interest, but also the names of individual captains, the vast majority of whom took part in the wars with Moscow under Stefan Batory. Later, some of them made careers in senatorial and dignitary circles, which were associated with military service and holding the title of captain. It is also worth noting that the participation of the army in the war with Archduke Maximilian and at the Battle of Byczyna was verified. Another important aspect discussed in the article is the political context behind the use of the army in the doubling of the election sejm and the attempts to weaken the position of the Grand Hetman of the Crown, Jan Zamoyski, and subjecting his prerogatives to a nationwide discussion on the scope of power held by central officials. This issue is of particular importance from the perspective of the Ruthenian nobility, who were still threatened by Tatar invasions.
RU
В статье обсуждается численность и функционирование Кварцяного войска в бурное третье междуцарствие и в первый год правления Сигизмунда III. Эта проблема до сих пор не слишком подробно обсуждалась в специализированной литературе; она была лишь обозначена в исследовании Яна Виммера. Благодаря доступу к ранее неиспользованной базе военно-расчетных материалов, удалось определить не только численность этой армии в конкретных кварталах интересующего периода, но и имена ротмистров, подавляющее большинство которых принимало участие в войнах с Москвой под руководством Стефана Батория. Позже некоторые из них сделали карьеру в группе сенаторов и сановников, что было связано с военной службой и присвоением звания ротмистра. Также стоит отметить, что верификации подверглось участие квартальных в войне с эрцгерцогом Максимилианом и в битве под Бычиной. Не менее важным аспектом, обсуждаемым в статье, является политический контекст использования Кварцяного войска в ситуации раздвоения выборного сейма и попыток ослабить позиции великого гетмана коронного Яна Замойского, а также подчинение его прерогатив общенациональной дискуссии о полномочиях центральных чиновников. Этот вопрос имеет особое значение с точки зрения русинской знати, постоянно находящейся под угрозой татарского нашествия.
PL
Artykuł omawia liczebność i funkcjonowanie wojsk kwarcianych w burzliwym trzecim bezkrólewiu oraz w pierwszym roku panowania Zygmunta III. Problem ten nie był dotychczas szerzej omawiany w literaturze przedmiotu, a jedynie zasygnalizowany w opracowaniu Jana Wimmera. Dzięki dotarciu do niewykorzystanych dotychczas materiałów skarbowo-wojskowych udało się ustalić nie tylko liczebność tego wojska w poszczególnych kwartałach interesującego okresu, ale także nazwiska rotmistrzów, spośród których zdecydowana większość brała udział w wojnach z Moskwą za Stefana Batorego. W późniejszym czasie część z nich zrobiła kariery w gronie senatorsko-dygnitarskim, co wiązało się ze służbą wojskową i piastowaniem tytułu rotmistrza. Warto także podkreślić, że weryfikacji został poddany udział kwarcianych w wojnie z arcyksięciem Maksymilianem i w bitwie pod Byczyną. Nie mniej istotnym aspektem, poruszonym w artykule, jest kontekst polityczny użycia kwarcianych w sytuacji rozdwojenia sejmu elekcyjnego i prób osłabienia pozycji hetmana wielkiego koronnego Jana Zamoyskiego oraz poddanie jego prerogatyw ogólnokrajowej dyskusji nad zakresem władzy urzędników centralnych. Kwestia ta nabiera szczególnego znaczenia z perspektywy szlachty ruskiej, ciągle zagrożonej najazdami tatarskimi.
PL
W wielonarodowościowym międzywojennym Wojsku Polskim służyła niewielka liczba Czechów. Czescy poborowi pochodzili głównie z Wołynia. W meldunkach narodowościowych sporządzonych przez Wojsko Polskie przed II wojną światową trudno znaleźć zapisy krytyczne wobec czeskich rekrutów z Wołynia. W latach 1918–1939 tysiące poborowych i żołnierzy służących w różnych pułkach uciekło z Polski za granicę. W wielonarodowej armii polskiej praktycznie nie było dezercji nielicznych Czechów i jeszcze mniej licznych Słowaków. W latach dwudziestych do Czechosłowacji z armii polskiej uciekali głównie ukraińscy nacjonaliści, zazwyczaj szukając kontaktów z funkcjonującą w latach 1920–1925 w Pradze Ukraińską Organizacją Wojskową. Dezerterami do Czechosłowacji byli również Żydzi i Polacy. W międzywojniu uciekali do Polski także służący w Wojsku Czechosłowacji Czesi, Słowacy, Żydzi i Polacy. Na podstawie polskich dokumentów nie da się określić dokładnej skali tych dezercji, wiadomo jednak, że wielu czeskich zbiegów – komunistów – traktowało Polskę jedynie jako kraj tranzytowy na drodze do Związku Radzieckiego. Mimo wielu różnic dezerterów z Polski i Czechosłowacji dużo łączyło. Ucieczka do sąsiedniego kraju była często próbą uniknięcia odpowiedzialności karnej za popełnione w ojczyźnie przestępstwa. Wielu dezerterów wierzyło, że poza granicami Polski i Czechosłowacji rozpoczną nowy etap lepszego i bardziej udanego cywilnego życia. Zazwyczaj była to iluzja wolności.
DE
In der multinationalen polnischen Armee der Zwischenkriegszeit diente auch eine kleine Gruppe von Tschechen. Die tschechischen Wehrpflichtigen kamen hauptsächlich aus Wolhynien. Kritische Einträge über tschechische Rekruten aus Wolhynien sind in den Nationalitätenberichten, die von der polnischen Armee vor dem Zweiten Weltkrieg erstellt wurden, nur schwer zu finden. Zwischen 1918 und 1939 flohen Tausende von Wehrpflichtigen und Soldaten, die in verschiedenen Regimentern dienten, aus Polen ins Ausland. In der multinationalen Polnischen Armee fanden praktisch keine Desertionen durch die wenigen Tschechen und durch Vertreter der noch kleineren Gruppe der Slowaken statt. In den 1920er Jahren waren es vor allem ukrainische Nationalisten, die aus der Polnischen Armee in die Tschechoslowakei desertierten und in der Regel Kontakte zur Ukrainischen Militärorganisation suchten, die von 1920 bis 1925 in Prag tätig war. Auch Juden und Polen desertierten in die Tschechoslowakei. In der Zwischenkriegszeit flohen auch Tschechen, Slowaken, Juden und Polen, die in der Tschechoslowakischen Armee dienten, nach Polen. Das genaue Ausmaß dieser Desertionen lässt sich anhand polnischer Dokumente nicht feststellen, doch es ist bekannt, dass viele tschechisch-kommunistische Deserteure Polen nur als Transitland auf ihrem Weg in die Sowjetunion betrachteten. Trotz ihrer vielen Unterschiede hatten die Deserteure aus Polen und der Tschechoslowakei viel gemeinsam. Die Flucht in ein Nachbarland war häufig ein Versuch, sich der strafrechtlichen Verantwortung für in der Heimat begangene Verbrechen zu entziehen. Viele Deserteure glaubten, dass sie jenseits der Grenzen Polens und der Tschechoslowakei einen neuen Abschnitt eines besseren und erfolgreicheren zivilen Lebens beginnen würden. Dies war meist eine Illusion der Freiheit.
EN
A small number of Czech conscripts served in the multinational interwar Polish Army, most of whom came from the region of Volhynia. In the national reports prepared by the Polish Army before World War II, it is difficult to find criticism of Czech recruits from Volhynia. Between 1918–1939, thousands of soldiers serving in various regiments escaped from Poland and fled abroad. Only a few Czechs deserted from the multinational Polish Army, whilst the number of Slovak deserters was even smaller. During the 1920s most deserters from the Polish Army to Czechoslovakia were Ukrainian nationalists, who were usually looking to make contact with the Ukrainian Military Organization that functioned in Prague between 1920–1925. However, Jews and Poles also deserted to Czechoslovakia. In the interwar period, Czechs, Slovaks, Jews and Poles serving in the Czechoslovak Army also fled to Poland. Based on Polish documents, it is impossible to determine the exact scale of these desertions, but it is known that many Czech deserters were communists who viewed Poland simply as a transit country on the way to the Soviet Union. Despite many differences, deserters from Poland and Czechoslovakia had a lot in common. Escaping to a neighboring country was often an attempt to avoid criminal liability for crimes committed in the home country, and many deserters believed that they could start again and build a better life outside Poland or Czechoslovakia. Usually, however, this was an illusion of freedom.
PL
Pierwsza część artykułu obejmuje uwarunkowania polityczne i społeczno-ekonomiczne, w jakich przyszło żyć Egipcjanom i jakie stanowiły istotne tło dla wydarzeń, które nastąpiły po 25 stycznia 2011 roku. Kolejne dwie traktują o takich kwestiach, jak polityczna mobilizacja i strategia, w tym zastosowanie taktyki protestu bez przemocy. Nie byłaby ona skuteczna, gdyby nie pewne okoliczności, których dziś możemy się jedynie domyślać. Ostatnia część mówi więc o istotnych okolicznościach sprzyjających osiągnięciu celu, jakim była dymisja prezydenta, a także o możliwym scenariuszu na niedaleką przyszłość. Tezą artykułu jest konstatacja, iż polityczna mobilizacja, której skutkiem był masowy protest oraz dymisja Hosniego Mubaraka, okazała się skuteczna dlatego, że towarzyszyło jej pęknięcie w łonie autorytarnego systemu władzy (armia kontra partia dominująca i technokraci) – związane z problemem prezydenckiej sukcesji (po upływie kolejnej kadencji ponad 80-letniego Mubaraka) i lansowanie na stanowisko przyszłej głowy państwa Gamala Mubaraka, reprezentującego interesy technokratów („reżimowej burżuazji”), a nie armii.
EN
The first part of the paper focuses on political and socio-economic conditions in Egypt, offering a crucial background for a better understanding of events that took place after 25 January 2011. The following two parts concentrate on issues such as political mobilization and strategy, including protest policy without using violence. Were it not for some circumstances one can only speculate about, it would not have been possible. The final part concerns the most significant events that helped achieve this very goal, i. e. the resignation of the President Hosni Mubarak, and possible future scenario. The main thesis is that political mobilization resulting in mass protests and deposition of Hosni Mubarak was successful because it was accompanied with a breakdown in the very heart of authoritarian system (army against dominating party and technocrats) – which was connected with a problem of presidential succession (after over 80- years long tenure of Mubarak), and with lobbying Gamal Mubarak, representing not army but technocrats (so-called ‘regime bureaucracy’), to become next head of the state.
17
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Quad–Australia. Nowe otwarcie

31%
EN
Ten years after the collapse of the first version of the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (QSD), the new „Quad” is growing, with the participation of the same counties: Australia, India, Japan and the United States. Why after the fall of the idea did they return to this platform again? The answer seems to be obvious, not only for those who wanted to maintain the „Quad” but also for those who did not treat it as a priority. The growing strength and assertiveness of China convinced these four states to launch the new „Quad”. For Australia, the key factor for the effectiveness of the new Quadrilateral Security Dialogue will be to deepen mutual cooperation with special emphasis on India, as well as to convince ASEAN countries to the idea of the Indo-Pacific. Only in this way „Quad” would guarantee security in the region, as much as to create an alternative to the China’s Belt and Road project. It is Australian chance to balance the power, through bringing order to the region, on principles that are favorable for itself.
PL
Dziesięć lat po upadku pierwszej wersji Czterostronnego Dialogu Bezpieczeństwa, rozwija się nowy „Quad” z udziałem tych samych państw: Australii, Japonii, Stanów Zjednoczonych oraz Indii. Dlaczego powrócono do tej idei raz jeszcze? Odpowiedź wydaje się oczywista nie tylko dla tych, którzy chcieli utrzymania dialogu, ale także dla wszystkich, którzy nie traktowali go priorytetowo. Rosnąca siła i asertywność Chin przekonała „czwórkę” do ponownego otwarcia „Quad”. Dla Australii kluczem do skuteczności nowego Czterostronnego Dialogu nBezpieczeństwa będzie pogłębienie wzajemnej współpracy, ze szczególnym naciskiem na Indie oraz przekonanie państw ASEAN do wizji Indo-Pacyfiku. Tylko w ten sposób „Quad” może stać się gwarantem bezpieczeństwa w regionie, jak również tworzyć alternatywę dla chińskiego projektu Pasa i Szlaku. To szansa Australii na korzystne zrównoważenie sił przez doprowadzenie do porządku w regionie, na korzystnych dla siebie warunkach.
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