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EN
The purpose of this article is to clarify the role of Lewis Namier, a Foreign Office expert on Polish affairs, and his contribution to the drawing of the “Curzon Line” – the Polish‑Ukrainian border in Eastern Galicia after World War I. Namier was of Polish‑Jewish descent, and he has gone down in Polish historiography as a man of rabidly anti‑Polish inclination; during the war and later at the Versailles Peace Conference, he consistently opposed Poland’s expansion in eastern Europe, notably propagating the view that the whole of the territory known as Kresy – the Eastern Marchlands – should be severed from Poland. His concepts and activities were in tune with the general thrust of British policy towards Poland, though it seems that he was not the eminence grise in Lloyd George’s cabinet in this question, but merely a convenient supplier of anti‑Polish arguments. This analysis aims at proving that the great role attributed to Namier in Polish historiography is exaggerated and it was not he – as is commonly believed – who was the actual author of the Curzon Line, and it was not he who inserted it into the famous note sent from Spa to the Bolsheviks in July 1920.
EN
The peace treaties of Saint-Germain and Trianon sealed the disintegration of the Habsburg Monarchy into seven successor states under international law. Due to the ethnically mixed settlement structures of Austria-Hungary, the application of the right of self-determination led to multiple demarcation conflicts between the new nation-states. When the Allied Powers started the Paris Peace Conference in January 1919, the negotiations were influenced by the unsettled atmosphere in East-Central Europe, which was suffering from an acute shortage of food and coal. Applying different political, strategic and economic principles, the peace treaties with Austria and Hungary were more vindictive than the one with Germany.
EN
The aim of this essay is to discuss the border dispute between emerging Czechoslovakia and Poland over the northern part of Zips, a multietnic region in the north of the late Kingdom of Hungary, and the role it played within a broader scope of tensions between Prague and Warsaw at the Paris Peace Conference. This controversy is a good example as to how the diplomacy of Versailles attempted to face problems of East Central Europe being rebuilt. The Entente Powers hoped to reconcile the clash by negotiating with the contestants over expert proposals and, later, with the help of plebiscite. A fight of national identities, which spread over the borderland in question, caused the failure of such an approach. The Powers, apparently tired of mediating in avail and affected by more complex geopolitical interests, met a partitioning decision. It was far from comforting anyone involved. Calls for revision of the border line about to be established served then as an easy-occurring instrument to severe Czechoslovak-Polish relations. The design of the author was to combine three different perspectives – diplomatic, inner and local – in attempt to demonstrate complexities of the topic.
EN
In the opinion of the vast majority of historians, school history education is extremely important. They emphasize that it plays a key role not only from the point of view of shaping the knowledge of young people about the past, but also in defining the historical awareness of the whole society, because often what students learn at school determines their lifelong knowledge of many historical issues. Unfortunately, the awareness of these obvious statements does not go hand in hand with respect for the achievements of history didactics. As a scientific discipline, history didactics undertakes as one of its most important research areas the analysis of school history textbooks which are still the basic sources of students' knowledge about the past, besides the history teacher and the Internet. Bearing the above conclusions in mind, the author of the article decided to analyze approximately a dozen of the most popular history textbooks for secondary and upper secondary schools, which Polish youth used at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, with a focus on how they present the political and military battle to incorporate Greater Poland into Poland in 1918- 1919. The article uses mainly the philological and comparative methods. By isolating the main themes of the Greater Poland Uprising and selected themes of the Paris Peace Conference from the textbooks, it was shown that these issues received in the analyzed textbooks attention adequate to their importance and occupied as much space as required by the curriculum frameworks for history teaching in the 1990s and the core curricula in operation since the beginning of the present century. This is due to the fact that practically all the analyzed textbooks contain, along with a short commentary and sometimes also a didactic review, the basic facts about the circumstances of the outbreak, course and significance of the Greater Poland Uprising. The analysis clearly shows that the history textbooks used by young people in the 1990s were definitely more accurate, but were also characterized by a more interesting narrative. Unfortunately, in the case of all the analyzed textbooks, their didactic structure was a relatively weak point.
PL
Górny Śląsk jest regionem, którego historia i skład etniczny nastręczają problemów interpretacyjnych. Dziś te problemy są teoretyczne, lecz w roku 1918 decyzje dotyczące jego losów musiały zostać podjęte natychmiast. Rozwiązanie zaproponowane w czasie Konferencji paryskiej przewidywało przeprowadzenie plebiscytu, w którym to ludność miała rozstrzygnąć o swych losach. W roku 1921 okazało się jednak, że owo remedium nie do końca spełniło oczekiwania, wtedy podniesiona została koncepcja Wolnego Regionu Śląsk. Choć nie miała ona większych konsekwencji politycznych, samo jej pojawienie się jest fenomenem wartym uwagi.
EN
Upper Silesia is a region, which history and ethnic composition cause problems of interpretation. Today the problems are theoretical, but in 1918 decisions concerning the region needed to be made immediately. Solution presented on Paris Peace Conference included plebiscite, during which the population were to decide about its future. In 1921 it turned out, that the new remedy had not met expectations. Then a new solution appeared – Free Region of Silesia. Although political consequences of the idea were rather marginal, the mere manifestation was a rare phenomena.
Zapiski Historyczne
|
2021
|
vol. 86
|
issue 2
33-56
EN
The year 2020 saw the centenary of the return of Pomerania to Poland, which regained access to the Baltic Sea. This event, along with many other issues connected with the establishment of the Polish state after the First World War, has been the subject of historians’ research for years. This also applies to history educators who analyse the contents of school textbooks. The author of this article, which is consistent with this research trend, decided to analyse dozens of the most popular textbooks for teaching history in secondary schools used by Polish pupils over the past 30 years, i.e. in the period from 1990 to 2020. The article primarily uses the philological and comparative methods. The undertaken analysis helped to distinguish from the school textbooks three main threads concerning Poland’s return to the Baltic Sea, namely the speech by the President of the United States Thomas Woodrow Wilson of 8 January 1918, the resolutions of the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 and Poland’s Wedding to the Sea of February 1920. As a result, it has been shown that these issues have an adequate place in textbooks, as far as it was required by curricula for teaching history in the 1990s, as well as the later reformed curricula created during the first two decades of the present century. This results from the fact that practically all analysed textbooks provide basic facts concerning the circumstances of the retaking of part of Pomerania by the Republic of Poland after the end of the First World War, which are presented with a short commentary and sometimes with additional content for learning, and with particular consideration of international conditions of this process. What should be noted in the analysed textbooks is that they are free of ideological influences, which had been visible in Polish history textbooks before 1990.
EN
This paper analyzes political activities of Count M. Tyszkiewicz. The author sets out from an overview of his descent, academic education, and family relationship. Particular attention is devoted to Tyszkiewicz’s involvement in political affairs, formation of his views, as well as social and political undertakings. Another element highlighted here is Tyszkiewicz’s activity as a patron, his contribution to the development of Ukrainian and Polish culture, and relations with Ukrainian politicians and writers at the turn of the 20th century. Furthermore, the author discusses his diplomatic achievement as a representative of Ukraine to the Holy See and the peace conference in Paris. Based on a study of correspondence between Tyszkiewicz and Ukrainian politicians, the author emphasizes his commitment to the Ukrainian cause on the international scene and efforts to seek recognition of the Ukrainian state.  
EN
The contacts that Poles and “White” Russians established in 1918 indicated that finding an agreement based on their common dislike of the Bolsheviks would be very difficult. The basic condition of the compromise emphasised by the Russians was the Polish agreement to setting the future border separating their countries in accordance with the eastern border of the Kingdom of Poland, which, before the First World War, was part of the Russian Empire. For Poland, politically and militarily supporting “White” Russia stood against the Polish raison d’état. In the case of a “White” Russian victory the future of the Polish border would be sealed, as the Entente powers would likely support their former ally and agree to demarcating the eastern border of the former Kingdom of Poland.
PL
Kontakty, jakie Polacy i „Biali” Rosjanie nawiązali w 1918 r. wskazywały, że znalezienie porozumienia opartego na ich wspólnej niechęci do bolszewików byłoby bardzo trudne. Podstawowym warunkiem, podkreślanego przez Rosjan kompromisu, było porozumienie z Polską co do przyszłej granicy oddzielającej oba państwa. Linia graniczna Królestwa Polskiego, które przed I wojną światową wchodziło w skład Imperium Rosyjskiego, nie wchodziła w grę. Dla odrodzonego państwa polskiego polityczne i militarne wspieranie „Białej” Rosji było sprzeczne z polską racją stanu. W przypadku zwycięstwa „Białej” Rosji przyszłość polskiej granicy byłaby przesądzona, gdyż mocarstwa Ententy, prawdopodobnie, poparłyby swojego byłego sojusznika i zgodziły się na wschodnią granicę dawnego Królestwa Polskiego.
EN
The First World War represented the biggest challenge and a test of cohesion for the individual parts of the Empire. Newly, the dominions were to reach full recognition as autonomous nations of the imperial community. Participation of the Dominions at the Paris Peace Conference and the issues discussed there influenced the status of the Dominions not only to their mother country, but also to the wider world. All the Dominions, except for Newfoundland, found themselves among members of the new international organisation – the League of Nations. In addition, Dominion delegates also signed the Treaty of Versailles, which the overseas leaders considered a formal recognition of their formal independence on the part of the British. However, in contrast to the expectations of the Dominion representatives, a symbolic recognition of their new status did not take place and, therefore, the world continued to regard them as an integral part of the British Empire, i.e. that the British still represented them in many aspects on the outside. The course of the conference, however, did confirm that it was not possible to view the Dominions as “ordinary” colonies or dependent territories anymore. The First World War strengthened the general trend heading towards a broader understanding of autonomy and to a more intense cooperation within the Empire.
PL
Tematem artykułu jest udział geografów w dyskusji nad nowymi granicami Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej i Południowo-Wschodniej w czasie I wojny światowej i na konferencji pokojowej w Paryżu. Na przykładzie uczonych takich jak Jovan Cvijić, Eugeniusz Romer, Stepan Rudnic’kyj i Viktor Dvorský autor analizuje strategie argumentacyjne towarzyszące tworzeniu definicji terytorium narodowego. W dalszej części tekstu zajmuje się wpływem ekspertów geograficznych na ustaleniakonferencji pokojowej w Paryżu w 1919r.The article discusses the contribution of geographers to the discussion about the new boundaries of East-Central and South-Eastern Europe during the First World War and the peace conference at Paris. Using the examples of such scholars as:Jovan Cvijić, Eugeniusz Romer, Stepan Rudnytskyi and Viktor Dvorský, the author analyses the argumentative strategies used to formulate the definition of national territory. In the further part of the text he focuses on the contribution of experts in geography to the output of the Paris Peace Conference of 1919.
EN
The Treaty of Versailles was signed after several months of deliberations at a peace conference convened to Paris after the end of World War I on 28 June 1919 in Paris by Germany and the Entente countries. It entered into force on 10 January 1920, i.e., on the day of its ratification. Delegations of 27 winning countries participated in the peace conference in Paris. The treaty completely changed the map of Europe and the prevailing political order. Many small countries found their place on the map, including the Republic of Poland re-emerging on the maps of Europe, although in smaller territorial ownership than before the Partition of Poland. The Polish delegation, including among others: Ignacy Jan Paderewski and Roman Dmowski, tried their best to restore the Poles to their lands. Lands which, as a result of the Partition, came under the rule of three powers, namely: Prussia, Austria, and Russia. However, the peace conference in Paris showed much reluctance on the part of the Big Five, which decided about the fate of post-war Europe towards Poland. Expectations of the Poles that their case would be supported by friendly British, American, or French politicians turned out to be deceptive. Especially the French, who seemed very favourable to Poland, at the peace conference completely obeyed the will of the British, who even intended to prevent the Poles in their quest to restore the pre-partition Polish borders. The British Prime Minister David Lloyd George, who turned out to expose his unfavourable attitude towards the Polish cause, was so uncompromising in his position that no arguments invoked by the Polish delegation appealed to him.
PL
Traktat wersalski podpisany został po wielomiesięcznych obradach konferencji pokojowej zwołanej do Paryża, po zakończeniu I Wojny Światowej w dniu 28 czerwca 1919 roku w Paryżu, przez Niemcy i państwa Ententy. Wszedł w życie z dniem 10 stycznia 1920 roku, tj. z dniem jego ratyfikacji. W konferencji pokojowej w Paryżu uczestniczyły delegacje 27 zwycięskich państw. Traktat gruntownie zmienił mapę Europy i panujący ład polityczny. Na mapie znalazło się wiele małych państw, w tym Rzeczypospolita Polska na nowo zaistniała na mapach Europy, choć w mniejszym niż przed rozbiorami posiadaniu terytorialnym. Delegacja polska, w której znaleźli się m.in: Ignacy Jan Paderewski czy Roman Dmowski zabiegali ze wszystkich sił by przywrócić Polakom ich ziemie, ziemie, które na skutek rozbiorów znalazły się pod władaniem trzech mocarstw, tj: Prus, Austrii i Rosji. Jednakże konferencja pokojowa w Paryżu ukazała wiele niechęci ze strony Wielkiej Piątki, decydującej o losach powojennej Europy w stosunku do Polski. Oczekiwania Polaków, że ich sprawa zostanie poparta przez zaprzyjaźnionych Brytyjczyków, czy Amerykanów, czy wreszcie Francuzów, okazały się złudne. Zwłaszcza Francuzi, którzy wydawali się nader do Polski przychylnie ustosunkowani, na konferencji pokojowej zupełnie podporządkowali się woli Brytyjczyków, którym wręcz zależało by przeszkodzić Polakom w ich dążeniu do przywrócenia przedrozbiorowych granic Polski. Głównym wyrazicielem nieprzychylności Brytyjczyków do sprawy polskiej okazał się być ówczesny premier Wielkiej Brytanii – David Lloyd George, który był tak nieprzejednany w swym stanowisku, że nie przemawiały do niego żadne argumenty na które powoływała się delegacja polska.
Kwartalnik Historyczny
|
2023
|
vol. 130
|
issue 1
51-82
EN
After the end of the First World War in 1918, and with the start of the Paris Peace Conference, the United States, to establish permanent peace in Europe, became involved in settlement of European territorial questions, recognised in universalist, transnational terms. The problem of Upper Silesia, a disputed region between restored Poland and defeated Germany, was estimated by the US administration from a liberal internationalist perspective, which assumed to develop a supranational political and economic community.
PL
Po zakończeniu I wojny światowej w 1918 r., w czasie paryskiej konferencji pokojowej, Stany Zjednoczone, dążąc do ustanowienia w Europie trwałego pokoju, zaangażowały się w uregulowanie europejskich kwestii terytorialnych. Uznawano je bowiem za problem o powszechnym, ponadnarodowym wymiarze. Kwestia Górnego Śląska, dzieląca wówczas Polskę i Niemcy, oceniana był przez administrację amerykańską z perspektywy liberalnego internacjonalizmu, zakładającego budowę ponadnarodowej wspólnoty politycznej i gospodarczej.
EN
William Bullitt’s 1919 mission to Russia was the final stage of a process initiated on the eve of the Paris Peace Conference and continued in the first weeks of the Conference, in particular during the sessions of the Supreme Council, also called the Council of Ten. The Allied discourse addressed the vital question of Russia’s place and role in building a lasting, stable international order. The questions: “what to do with Russia?” and “what course of action to adopt towards her?” were accompanied by the dilemma of whether to continue diplomatic non-recognition of Bolshevik rule and pursue an economic blockade and military intervention. Without the participation of Bolshevik Russia, heir to the great empire of the tsars, it seemed impossible to build a new world order. Although racked by revolution, civil war, and economic chaos, Russia still held the key to establishing a lasting world peace.
PL
Misja Williama Bullitta z 1919 r. do Rosji była ostatnim etapem procesu zainicjowanego w przeddzień konferencji pokojowej w Paryżu i kontynuowanego w pierwszych tygodniach jej trwania, w trakcie m.in. obrad Rady Dziesięciu. Dyskurs aliantów dotyczył kluczowego pytania o miejsce i rolę Rosji w budowaniu trwałego stabilnego ładu międzynarodowego. Pytaniom: „co zrobić z Rosją?”, „jaki tryb postępowania przyjąć wobec niej?”, towarzyszyły problemy dyplomatycznego nieuznawania rządów bolszewickich, prowadzenia blokady gospodarczej oraz interwencji zbrojnej. Bez udziału Rosji, spadkobierczyni wielkiego carskiego imperium, nie wydawało się możliwe zbudowanie nowego porządku światowego. Rosja, choć targana rewolucją, wojną domową, ekonomicznym i gospodarczym chaosem, nadal stanowiła klucz do ustanowienia trwałego pokoju światowego.
EN
The Great War was a milestone not just in world history, but also in terms of constitutional relations between London and autonomous parts of the British Empire. Dominions, which were considered ‘sister’ nations of the Imperial Commonwealth endeavoured to acquire international recognition as a result of their war efforts. Participation of the dominions at discussions in Paris, membership of the new international organisation, the League of Nations, involvement in the administration of mandated territories and co-signature of the Treaty of Versailles gave rise to euphoria amongst the overseas representatives who saw it as the recognition of their formal independence and new international status that they desired. The war years and the course of the Paris Peace Conference confirmed that the dominions could no longer be regarded as ordinary ‘colonies’ or dependent territories. The First World War and post-war developments generally boosted the trend for dominions to set out on the road to a wider concept
Dzieje Najnowsze
|
2022
|
vol. 54
|
issue 4
25-60
EN
The article aims to discuss two diplomatic and military missions to Paris carried out by Bolesław Długoszowski (aka ‘Wieniawa’) in the first half of 1919. In both cases, he was an envoy of Józef Piłsudski, whose interests he represented in France during the Paris Peace Conference. While there, Długoszowski dealt with crucial problems related to the reconstruction of the Polish state, including strengthening its military potential and establishing relations with the Entente powers and the Polish National Committee.
PL
Celem artykułu jest przedstawienie dwóch misji dyplomatyczno-wojskowych Bolesława Długoszowskiego „Wieniawy” do Paryża w pierwszej połowie 1919 r. W obu przypadkach był on wysłannikiem Józefa Piłsudskiego, którego interesy reprezentował we Francji w okresie paryskiej konferencji pokojowej. W trakcie misji Długoszowski zajmował się kluczowymi problemami związanymi z odbudową państwa polskiego, w tym wzmocnieniem jego potencjału militarnego, nawiązaniem stosunków z państwami ententy oraz Komitetem Narodowym Polskim.
Dzieje Najnowsze
|
2023
|
vol. 55
|
issue 1
5-23
EN
The article aims to discuss two diplomatic and military missions to Paris carried out by Bolesław Długoszowski (“Wieniawa”) in the first half of 1919. In both cases, he was an envoy of Józef Piłsudski, whose interests he represented in France during the Paris Peace Conference. While there, Długoszowski dealt with key problems related to the reconstruction of the Polish state, including strengthening its military potential and establishing relations with the Entente powers and the Polish National Committee.
PL
Celem artykułu jest przedstawienie dwóch misji dyplomatyczno-wojskowych Bolesława Długoszowskiego „Wieniawy” do Paryża w pierwszej połowie 1919 r. W obu przypadkach był on wysłannikiem Józefa Piłsudskiego, którego interesy reprezentował we Francji w okresie paryskiej konferencji pokojowej. W trakcie misji Długoszowski zajmował się kluczowymi problemami związanymi z odbudową państwa polskiego, w tym wzmocnieniem jego potencjału militarnego, nawiązaniem stosunków z państwami ententy oraz Komitetem Narodowym Polskim.
EN
I present five collections housed in the American Geographical Society Library and the Archives of the Golda Meir Library at the University of Wisconsin – Milwaukee: archival materials pertaining to the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, early maps of Poland (1508-1772), photographs taken by Louise Arner Boyd in Kresy (Borderlands) in 1934, photographs by Harrison Forman from Warsaw in 1939, and photographs by Roman Kwaśniewski, documenting the life of Milwaukee Polonia between 1911 and 1947. This study documents the role of the American Geographical Society Library in preservation and propagation of historical and geographical documents, particularly those from Poland. It also identifies the early maps of Poland and points out their significance in the history of European cartography.
PL
W artykule omawiam pięć kolekcji ze zbiorów Biblioteki Amerykańskiego Towarzystwa Geograficznego na Uniwersytecie Wisconsin w Milwaukee, a mianowicie: materiały dotyczące konferencji pokojowej w Paryżu w 1919 r., mapy Polski z lat 1508-1772, zdjęcia Louise Arner Boyd z Kresów w 1934 r., fotografie Harrisona Formana przedstawiające atak Niemiec na Polskę w 1939 r. oraz zdjęcia Romana Kwaśniewskiego, dokumentujące życie Polonii w Milwaukee w latach 1911-1947. Głównym tematem artykułu jest przedstawienie roli, jaką odgrywa Biblioteka Amerykańskiego Towarzystwa Geograficznego w przechowywaniu i upowszechnianiu geograficznych i historycznych dokumentów, szczególnie tych z Polski (lub jej dotyczących). Drugim podstawowym wątkiem opracowania jest omówienie wczesnych map Polski i ich znaczenia w historii europejskiej kartografii.
EN
The aim of the article is to illustrate the attitude of British diplomacy during the negotiations on the Fiume issue during the Supreme Council of the Peace Conference in Paris, where the most important decisions concerning the fate of post-war Europe were made. Prime Minister Lloyd George’s behavior towards the general problem of the Adriatic and the Italian-American dispute was analyzed. The most important interests of Great Britain, which determined the course taken in this matter, were presented. The attitude of the heads of British diplomacy towards the most important events in Fiume in 1919 was also outlined.
PL
Celem artykułu jest zobrazowanie postawy brytyjskiej dyplomacji podczas negocjacji na temat kwestii Fiume w czasie obrad Rady Najwyższej Konferencji Pokojowej w Paryżu, na której zapadały najważniejsze decyzje dotyczące losów powojennej Europy. Analizie poddano zachowanie premiera Lloyda George’a wobec ogółu problemu kwestii adriatyckiej oraz sporu włosko-amerykańskiego. Zaprezentowano najważniejsze interesy Wielkiej Brytanii, które determinowały obrany kurs wobec tej sprawy. Zarysowano także stosunek szefów dyplomacji brytyjskiej do najważniejszych wydarzeń w Fiume w 1919 r.
EN
Ignace Jan Paderewski (1860-1941) – a world-famous pianist, composer, politician, statesman and diplomat played a significant role in shaping the reborn Polish state and its borders. He undertook active political activity during the First World War. In the years 1915-1918, he acquired the President of the United States, Woodrow Wilson and his closest associates, as well as over 4 million American Polonia for the Polish cause. He gained real influence on the shaping of the territory and borders of the Polish state after taking office as the Prime Minister of the Polish Government and the Minister of Foreign Affairs. This took place on January 16, 1919. Paderewski led to the recognition of the reborn Polish state in the international arena by the United States (January 30, 1919), France (February 23), Great Britain (February 25), Italy (February 27), and then other countries. He represented Poland in Paris as a delegate to the peace conference. During the several months of deliberations he fought for the incorporation into the Polish state of Eastern Galicia, Cieszyn Silesia and Upper Silesia, as well as Gdańsk together with Pomerania. He was supported in these activities by well-known Polish scholars, both historians (Szymon Askenazy, Oskar Halecki, Władysław Konopczyński) and geographers (Eugeniusz Romer). Together with Roman Dmowski, he signed at Versailles on 28 June 1919 a peace treaty ending World War I. After resigning from the post of prime minister on December 9, 1919 and leaving the country, he was still interested in Polish affairs. He returned to political activity during the Bolshevik invasion of Poland. From July 1920 to May 1921, at the request of the Polish government and the head of state Józef Piłsudski, he was a Polish delegate to international conferences and a representative at the League of Nations.
PL
Ignacy Jan Paderewski (1860-1941) – światowej sławy pianista, kompozytor, polityk oraz mąż stanu i dyplomata odegrał znaczącą rolę w kształtowaniu się odrodzonego państwa polskiego i jego granic. Aktywną działalność polityczną podjął w okresie pierwszej wojny światowej. W latach 1915-1918 pozyskał dla sprawy polskiej prezydenta Stanów Zjednoczonych, Woodrowa Wilsona i jego najbliższe otoczenie polityczne oraz ponad 4-milionową Polonię amerykańską. Realny wpływ na kształtowanie się terytorium i granic państwa polskiego zyskał po objęciu urzędu premiera polskiego rządu i ministra spraw zagranicznych, co miało miejsce 16 stycznia 1919 r. Doprowadził on do uznania odrodzonego państwa polskiego na arenie międzynarodowej przez Stany Zjednoczone (30 stycznia 1919 r.), Francję (23 lutego), Wielką Brytanię (25 lutego), Włochy (27 lutego), a następnie inne państwa. Reprezentował Polskę w Paryżu jako delegat na konferencję pokojową. W trakcie kilku miesięcy obrad walczył o włączenie do państwa polskiego Galicji Wschodniej, Śląska Cieszyńskiego i Górnego Śląska oraz Gdańska wraz z Pomorzem. Wspierali go w tych działaniach znani polscy uczeni, zarówno historycy (Szymon Askenazy, Oskar Halecki, Władysław Konopczyński), jak i geografowie (Eugeniusz Romer). Razem z Romanem Dmowskim podpisał w Wersalu w dniu 28 czerwca 1919 r. traktat pokojowy kończący I wojnę światową. Po rezygnacji z funkcji premiera w dniu 9 grudnia 1919 r. i wyjeździe z kraju, nadal interesował się sprawami polskimi. Do działalności politycznej powrócił w okresie inwazji bolszewickiej na Polskę. Od lipca 1920 r. do maja 1921 r. był na prośbę rządu polskiego i naczelnika państwa Józefa Piłsudskiego polskim delegatem na konferencje międzynarodowe oraz przedstawicielem przy Lidze Narodów.
EN
During the First World War, and later, geographers from East Central and South-Eastern Europe formulated several argumentative strategies to support territorial demands. Initially, the predominating idea was the one of ethnic borders, which were an expression of the right to self-determination as well as the most significant correction for strategic and economic justifications. Soon, however, the experts present at the peace conference became convinced that arguments other than ethnic arguments should be used. These arguments contained, among other motifs, culture and civilization. The most active among the experts in this respect were eminent scholars from Poland (e.g. Eugeniusz Romer), Czechoslovakia (e.g. Jan Kapras), Ukraine (Stepan Rudnytsky), Yugoslavia (Jovan Cvijić), Romania (Simion Mehedinţi) and Germany (Albrecht Penck, Wilhelm Volz). Most of them continued this line of thinking in the inter-war period, contributing to the creation of their respective national varieties of geopolitics.
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