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1
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Survey of Swahili dictionaries: the macrostructure

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Wójtowicz B.
Studies in African Languages and Cultures
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2016
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issue 50
5-39
EN
Swahili dictionaries have been on the market for over a century. New publications often take into account works that have been already published and base the list of headwords on older dictionaries. While this is widely accepted practice, nowadays also new, computer-based activities may no longer be ignored. Analysis presented in this paper aims at detecting the differences and similarities among Swahili bilingual published dictionaries on the macrostructural level, and at identifying possible trends in Swahili dictionary compilation. It also takes into account corpus-based methodology and points to its superiority over intuition-based methods in dictionary compilation.
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The Dictionary Writing System Lexit and Its Application in Bilingual Lexicography

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Koeva S., Blagoeva D.
Cognitive Studies
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2013
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issue 13
EN
The Dictionary Writing System Lexit and Its Application in Bilingual LexicographyThe paper presents LexIt  – a web-based Dictionary Writing System designed for the creation and enlargement of dictionaries. A wide range of dictionaries – monolingual, specialised, multilingual, thesauri, can be configured with the system, as it enables users to model, copy, and save templates describing the structure of any dictionary. The paper describes a model for a bilingual dictionary containing phonetic, grammatical, stylistic, semantic, and collocational information and its configuration within LexIt. A bilingual dictionary is chosen for a demonstration, as its entries have a complex structure that includes various elements reflecting the correspondences between source and target languages.
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So-called dictionary equivalents confronted with parallel corpora (and the consequences for bilingual lexicography)

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KUBICKA E.
Glottodidactica
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2019
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vol. 46
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issue 2
75-89
EN
The study considers the question of whether (and how) bilingual dictionaries may be improved. The information presented in dictionaries has been confronted with textual reality (i.e., with examples of actual translations), based on the German expression fassungslos and its Polish equivalents in parallel texts. The author assumes that bilingual dictionaries are mainly used by language learners, while professional translators may consider them as one of many possible sources. In teaching, multiplying the possible equivalents or suggesting ad hoc solutions is generally not recommended. Despite the attempts at objectivizing lexicographic descriptions, which are made possible by using language corpora, it often turns out that the decisions made by dictionary authors are (and need to be) arbitrary
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Survey of Swahili dictionaries: elements of the microstructure

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Wójtowicz B.
Studies in African Languages and Cultures
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2016
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issue 50
41-70
EN
The present article investigates several elements of the microstructural level of Swahili bilingual dictionaries. The main emphasis is on the grammatical information, its content and presentation in the various dictionaries chosen for analysis. The other components of a dictionary entry analysed include the headword, its citation form, and additionally the pronunciation, usage labels and etymological information not found in every dictionary. We investigate the many ways in which information can be presented to the user, influencing the user-friendliness of a given dictionary.
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La préposition za au sens temporel dans les dictionnaires généraux polonais-français

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Ucherek W.
Romanica Wratislaviensia
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2013
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vol. 60
55 – 64
EN
The paper analyses fragments of entries devoted to the preposition za in its temporal use found in sixteen contemporary Polish-French general dictionaries of different sizes. A general conclusion from the analysis is that, due both to inappropriate construction of these entries and to significant gaps in the inventory of equivalents and in exemplification, none of the fragments dealing with za makes it possible for native speakers of Polish to select the correct French equivalent of the preposition za in its temporal meaning.
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Средняя температура по больнице, czyli o pewnym typie skrzydlatych słów w kontekście leksykograficzno-translatorycznym

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Gasek B.
Acta Polono-Ruthenica
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2017
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issue 22/1
133-141
EN
Present article is an analysis of winged words Sredniaia temperatura po bol’nice with the indication to popular anecdotes that in many cases are a source for such expressions and warrants attention and consideration of lexicographers and translators.
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Fonetyczno-graficzny obraz polszczyzny końca XIX stulecia zawarty w hasłach literowych słownika polsko-rosyjskiego Piotra Dubrowskiego

80%
Mędelska J.
Prace Językoznawcze
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2021
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vol. XXIII/3
215–225
PL
Autorka przedstawia obraz XIX-wiecznej wymowy i pisowni polskiej wyłaniający się ze wskazówek na temat realizacji głoskowej liter polskiego alfabetu. Te rekomendacje fonetyczne, skierowane do Rosjan, zawarte są w artykułach hasłowych z literami w nagłówkach zamieszczonymi w słowniku polsko-rosyjskim P. Dubrowskiego. Stwierdzono, że opracowując zasady współczesnej sobie polskiej wymowy (rzadziej pisowni), Rosjanin P. Dubrowski niekiedy odrzucał dane przedstawione w słownikach jednojęzycznych i prezentował swoje stanowisko albo – wobec braku w źródłach potrzebnej informacji – opierał się na własnych obserwacjach. Zdarzało mu się ignorować różnice artykulacyjne między głoskami przy zgodności funkcjonalnej. Słownikarz zazwyczaj upraszczał opisy, nie uwzględniał szczegółów i wyjątków, czasem istotnych. Prawdopodobnie celowo nie komplikował deskrypcji, ale możliwe też, że będąc nierodzimym użytkownikiem polszczyzny, po prostu pewnych kwestii nie dostrzegał, innych nie uważał za ważne, wiedząc z własnego doświadczenia, że nie zaburzają procesu komunikacji. Rezultaty analizy wskazują też, że wiele nieścisłości dostrzeżonych w opisach polskich głosek mogło wynikać ze wschodniosłowiańskich przyzwyczajeń mownych rosyjskiego słownikarza, urodzonego na ziemi ukraińskiej i osłuchanego z polszczyzną kresową. Zestawienie rekomendacji P. Dubrowskiego z tendencjami rozwojowymi polszczyzny ostatniej ćwierci XIX w. zdaje się wskazywać na przywiązanie leksykografa do starszych norm. Jednakże ten konserwatyzm leksykografa mógł być tylko pozorny i jedynie odzwierciedlać nawyki artykulacyjne osoby rosyjskojęzycznej.
EN
The author presents the image of 19th-century Polish pronunciation and spelling that emerges from the guidelines for the vocal realization of the Polish alphabet letters. These phonetic recommendations, addressed to Russians, are contained in headword entries for letters in the Polish-Russian dictionary by Pyotr Dubrovsky. It was found that in developing the principles of contemporary Polish pronunciation (less frequently spelling), Dubrovsky, a Russian himself, sometimes disregarded data available in monolingual dictionaries and presented his position, or in the absence of necessary information in sources based his conclusions on his own observations. He occasionally ignored articulatory differences between phones with functional compatibility. Simplifying descriptions, he did not consider details and exceptions, sometimes even important ones. It is likely that he intentionally did not overcomplicate the descriptors, but being a non-native speaker of Polish, he might not simply have noticed certain issues, while he must have considered others unimportant, knowing from his own experience that they did not disrupt the communication process. Research results also indicate that many of the inaccuracies noted in the descriptions of Polish sounds may have resulted from the Eastern Slavic speech habits of the Russian lexicographer, who was born in Ukraine and listened to the Polish language of Kresy. The comparison of Dubrovsky’s recommendations with developmental trends of the Polish language in the last quarter of the 19th century seems to reveal the lexicographer’s attachment to older standards. However, such conservatism may only be apparent, while in fact reflecting the articulatory habits of a speaker of Russian.
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Rosyjskie skrótowce porewolucyjne w pierwszych radzieckich słownikach dwujęzycznych

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Mędelska J.
Acta Baltico-Slavica
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2010
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vol. 34
EN
Russian post-revolutionary abbreviations in the first bilingual Russian dictionariesThe process of real expansion of abbreviations started at the end of 19th century and it developed tremendously in 20th century. The process of creating abbreviations in Russian became active after World War I and suddenly became widespread particularly in the post-revolutionary period. At that time abbreviations were created spontaneously and in a disorganized way, yet numerous creations were commonly used. The period of time during which they were used was usually short, compare: ОСОАВИАХИМ (= Общество содействия обороне, авиации и химическому строительству). In most cases they were names of political parties, combat, revolutionary, social and other organizations, for instance: волисполком, военкомат, ревком. This characteristic type of Russian lexis was very troublesome for Polish intellectuals who were trying to code the Polish Russian language, i.e. specific, language code with many Russian and Soviet idioms that was used by the Polish living in the Soviet Union during the post-revolutionary period. Attempts to standardize abbreviations were reflected in translation dictionaries (Polish-Russian and Russian-Polish) published in Moscow in the 30s of 20th century. Русские послереволюционные аббревиатуры в первых советских двуязычных словаряхПроцесс настоящей экспансии аббревиатур начался в конце XIX столетия и продолжался, продвигаясь большими темпами, в ХХ веке. В русском языке аббревиация сильно активизировалась после первой мировой войы, особенно бурно распространялась в ранний послереволюционный период. В то время аббревиатуры образовались спонтанно, стихийно, неупорядоченно, но – несмотря на это – многие подобные образования попадали в общенародный обиход. Как правило, их жизнь быстро обрывалась, ср. ОСОАВИАХИМ (= Общество содействия обороне, авиации и химическому строительству). В основном это были названия политических партий, боевых, революционных, общественных и др. организаций, напр.: волисполком, военкомат, ревком. Этот характерный слой русской лексики доставлял много хлопот польским интеллигентам, пытавшимся кодифицировать советский польский язык, этот особый, сильнорусифицированный и советизированный языковой код, используемый поляками, проживавшими в СССР в межвоенный период. Попытки нормализовать образования аббревиатурного типа нашли отражение в переводных словарях (польско-русском и русско-польском), выпущенных в Москве в 30-е годы ХХ в.
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I toponimi nei dizionari bilingui italiano-polacco, polacco-italiano in un contesto diacronico di apprendimento

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Palmarini L.
Studia Romanica Posnaniensia
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2020
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vol. 47
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issue 2
93-110
PL
The purpose of this is to analyze the toponyms present in some Italian-Polish and Polish-Italian bilingual dictionaries. After selecting a “skeleton” of the dictionaries that trace part of the history of the bilingual lexicography in question, we move on to the analysis of the toponyms used in the dictionaries. In a lexicultural context, understood as the transfer of the cultural elements of a given language, we observe the choices made by lexicographers of the different eras and try to understand the reasons, sometimes of a personal nature or dictated by the historical context, or sometimes influenced by the political system in a given country. At the same time, we want to highlight the evolution in the diachronic field that toponyms and their equivalents have had in the dictionaries in question, as well as their value in teaching a particular foreign language.
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Contrastive word-formation and lexicography: Compound verbs in English and Bulgarian

70%
Bagasheva A.
Poznań Studies in Contemporary Linguistics
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2011
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vol. 47
844
EN
The paper is focused on a contrastive word-formation analysis of compound verbs in English and Bulgarian. A secondary focus is the possibility of a fruitful cross-pollination between practical lexicography and contrastive studies in the area of verb compounding. The analysis is cast in the cognitive linguistic paradigm and makes use of the concept of the construction schema as the chosen “tertium comparationis”, which best reveals the significant word-formation niches in the two languages under investigation. On the basis of immediate lexicographical experience in bilingual dictionary compilation and by applying the achievements of cognitive studies and contrastive word-formation, several word-formation families are analyzed and the conclusion is drawn that the productivity of compounding in Bulgarian is still significantly lower than that in English. Despite this marked difference in productivity, in the area of verbal compounding the convergence tendencies outweigh the observed contrasts between the two languages.
11
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Les équivalents lexicographiques français de la préposition spod1

61%
Ucherek W.
Orbis Linguarum
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2018
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issue 50
169–184
EN
French lexicographical equivalents of the preposition spod The paper analyses the lexicographical entries devoted to the Polish preposition spod (‘from under’) found in twenty five Polish-French general dictionaries of different sizes published in the 20th and at the beginning of the 21st centuries. A general conclusion from this comparative analyses is that, due to both inappropriate construction of these entries and significant gaps in the inventory of equivalents and in their exemplification, none of the consulted dictionaries makes it possible for Polish native speakers to select the correct French equivalent(s) of the preposition spod in a given type of context.
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Lakunarność jednostki Matka Polka a jej dwujęzyczny opis słownikowy

61%
Szerszunowicz J.
Prace Językoznawcze
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2013
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issue 15/2
69-82
EN
The focal issue of the paper is to analyze the phenomenon of lacunarity on the example of the Polish unit Matka Polka (lit. Polish Mother) and its bilingual lexicographic description. The unit is well grounded in the Polish culture: the myth of Polish Mother whose duty is to educate children to be patriots and, if necessary, to die for their country, developed during the partitions of Poland. This image has undergone changes during the socialist period as well as in the times after the nineties transformation. As a result the unit gained new semantic and stylistic overtones. The lexicographic description of the unit in Polish dictionaries is discussed and confronted with the results of questionnaire research done to determine the definition among native Polish speakers. The respondents (89 Polish students of Polish and English philologies) were asked to explain the meaning of the unit, use it in three sentences as well as indicate and discuss its linguistic (positive, neutral, negative) and cultural connotations. On the basis of the linguo-cultural analysis has been proposed a definition that encompasses not only the meaning given in Polish lexicographic sources, but also the one given by the respondents. The cultural component was also included, so that the prospective user could decode and use the unit properly in various contexts.
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Mapping wordnets from the perspective of inter-lingual equivalence

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Rudnicka E. K., Piasecki M. T., Piotrowski T., Grabowski Ł., Bond F.
Cognitive Studies
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2017
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issue 17
EN
Mapping wordnets from the perspective of inter-lingual equivalenceThis paper explores inter-lingual equivalence from the perspective of linking two large lexico-semantic databases, namely the Princeton WordNet of English and the plWordnet (pl. Słowosieć) of Polish. Wordnets are built as networks of lexico-semantic relations between words and their meanings, and constitute a type of monolingual dictionary cum thesaurus. The development of wordnets for different languages has given rise to many wordnet linking projects (e.g. EuroWordNet, Vossen, 2002). Regardless of a linking method used, these projects require defining rules for establishing equivalence links between wordnet building blocks, known as synsets (sets of synonymous lexical units, i.e., lemma-sense pairs). In this paper an analysis is carried out of a set of inter-wordnet relations used in the mapping of the plWordNet onto the Princeton WordNet, and an attempt is made to relate them to equivalence taxonomies described in specialist literature on bilingual lexicography and translation. Rzutowanie wordnetów w perspektywie ekwiwalencji międzyjęzykowejArtykuł przedstawia analizę zjawiska ekwiwalencji międzyjęzykowej z perspektywy powiązania dwóch wielkich wordnetów: polskiej Słowosieci i angielskiego WordNetu princetońskiego. Wordnety są relacyjnymi bazami danych leksykalno-semantycznych opisującymi sieć relacji leksykalno-semantycznych pomiędzy słowami i ich znaczeniami. Stanowią zatem rodzaj słownika jednojęzycznego połączonego z tezaurusem. Rozwój wordnetów dla wielu języków świata zaowocował następnie ich wzajemnymi powiązaniami. Wymagało to zdefiniowania metodologii dla ustalenia ekwiwalencji pomiędzy ich podstawowymi elementami tzn. synsetami, które są zbiorami synonimicznych jednostek leksykalnych tzn. par lemat numer znaczenia. W artykule analizujemy zbiór relacji międzywordnetowych używanych w rzutowaniu pomiędzy Słowosiecią a WordNetem princetońskim, odnosząc je do taksonomii ekwiwalencji postulowanych w literaturze leksykograficznej i translatorycznej.
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Nowy słownik polsko-łaciński. Propozycje założeń

57%
Kardas K.
Polonica
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2015
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vol. 35
61-70
EN
This paper focuses on presenting the most important, as it seems, lexicographical assumptions for a new Polish-Latin dictionary, that can be used, if the works on it will ever start. The main contained there ques- tions deals with problem of potential target user (basing on his own experience as a translator, author of pa- per suggest to aim new dictionary at two kinds of people: professionals (philologists, translators etc.) and non-educated in Latin, and also gives some guidelines, how practically join the needs of both types of users), selection of Polish lexemes for its word-list and possible parts of its macrostructure. Presented assuptions had been work out using the ideas of great Polish lexicographers and also bases on observations of modern languages’ dictionaries (and history of Polish lexicography) with special regard for unique character of Latin as a target language in dictionary. Secondary aim of paper is to point out as a problem the lack of adequate dictionary of this kind on Polish lexicographic market.
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Italsko-český slovník e Česko-italský slovník di Jaroslav Rosendorfský

51%
Palmarini L.
Italica Wratislaviensia
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2023
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issue 14.1
77-95
IT
L’articolo ha come scopo l’analisi del dizionario bilingue italiano-ceco/ceco-italiano realizzato da Jaroslav Rosendorfský. Dopo aver presentato brevemente i contatti lessicografici cecoitaliani fino al momento dell’uscita del summenzionato dizionario, si passa all’analisi della macroe microstruttura di quest’opera lessicografica, delle sue finalità, mettendo in evidenza le caratteristiche che dagli anni Sessanta del XX secolo fino agli inizi del terzo Millennio ne hanno fatto il più popolare dizionario bilingue italiano-ceco e ceco-italiano.
EN
The paper aims to analyse Jaroslav Rosendorfský’s bilingual Italian-Czech / Czech-Italian dictionary. After briefly presenting the Czech-Italian lexicographic contacts, we analyse the macroand microstructure of this lexicographic work, highlighting the characteristics that, as of the 60 years leading to the beginning of the 21st century, made it the most popular bilingual Italian-Czech and Czech-Italian dictionary.
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Początki dwujęzycznej leksykografii rosyjsko-polskiej i polsko-rosyjskiej. Zarys stanu badań

51%
Babanov A.
Slavica Wratislaviensia
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2019
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vol. 169
71-79
EN
Тhe beginnings of a bilingual Russian-Polish and Polish-Russian lexicography: A literature review The article presents an attempt to consolidate data of Russian-Polish and Polish-Russian lexicography of the period from the 17th century to the first quarter of the 19th century, provided in the bibliography of Polish dictionaries compiled by P. Grzegorczyk and the works of archeographists and historians of written languages. The author supposes that the absence of earliest Polish-East Slavic and East Slavic-Polish dictionaries in the most complete bibliography of Polish dictionaries may be explained as a consequence of the ambiguous ethnic character of written languages of the East Slavic peoples compared to recent differenctiation of East Slavic languages, as well as a result of the manuscript character of those dictionaries.
RU
Начало русско-польской и польско-русской двуязычной лексикографии. Краткий обзор научой литературы В статье предпринимается попытка свести воедино сведения о русско-польской и польско-русской лексикографии XVII–первой четверти XIX вв., представленный в библиографии польских словарей П. Гжегорчика и в работах археографов и историков литературных языков. Высказывается предположение, что отсутствие в наиболее полной библиографии польских словарей сведений о самых давних польсковосточнославянских восточнославянскопольских словарях, известных исследователям истории языка, может быть следствием нечеткости этнической характеристики литературного языка восточных славян в XVII веке по равнению с современной дифференциацией восточнославянских языков, а также рукописной формы функционировавших в XVII веке и в первой половине XVIII века польско-восточнославянских и восточнославянско-польских словарей.
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Les relations sémantiques dans un dictionnaire bilingue basé sur un corpus: problème de typologie

51%
Bralewski D.
Roczniki Humanistyczne
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2014
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vol. 62
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issue 8: Lingwistyka Korpusowa i Translatoryka
149-180
EN
The paper attempts to describe the semantic relations which joined together a translation equivalents taken from the bitext corpus for a bilingual dictionary. The description is based on the component model of significance referring to the set theory. Despite the difficulties of the separating the content plan of the message form its expression plan—in author’s opinion—the used model is suitable for a comprehensive description of bilingual lexical data, as it is evidenced by the examples discussed. The article contains the information about the frequency distributions of the discussed semantic relations in the corpus including 20081 units
PL
Artykuł podejmuje próbę opisu relacji semantycznych łączących ekwiwalenty przekładowe pobrane z korpusu bitekstów dla potrzeb słownika dwujęzycznego. Opis oparto na składnikowym modelu znaczenia odwołującym się do rachunku zbiorów. Mimo trudności, które wynikają z niemożności rygorystycznego oddzielenia planu treści komunikatu od jego planu wyrażania, zastosowany model nadaje się – zdaniem autora – do całościowego opisu dwujęzycznych danych leksykalnych, o czym świadczą omówione przykłady. Artykuł zawiera informacje o rozkładach częstości omawianych relacji semantycznych w części korpusu obejmującej 20 081 jednostek.
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Co přináší jednojazyčná lexikografie lexikografii překladové?

36%
Vachková M.
Naše řeč (Our Speech)
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2019
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vol. 102
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issue 1-2
102-118
EN
The paper is based on experience gained from working on a current project of the Large German-Czech Academic Dictionary. The author suggests briefly that bilingual lexicography cannot exist without monolingual dictionaries. The examples show that monolingual and translation dictionaries solve their processing problems in specific ways due both to the function of the emerging works and the theoretical assumptions tied to a linguistic, historical and cultural heritage of the respective country. Writing a German-Czech bilingual dictionary, the author often checks the Czech equivalents for their morphology, stylistics, semantics, and word-formation in monolingual dictionaries, and lacks greater reliability and completeness of data. This paper claims that new monolingual works should be based on thorough knowledge of the needs of not only ordinary users, but also professional ones. The reflection of the uniqueness of single and bilingual works could benefit lexicographers from both mentioned areas, in other words, seeing data in monolingual dictionaries through the eyes of a bilingual lexicographer could prove inspiring and useful.
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Перевод субстандартной фразеологии с польского языка на русский (материалы к переводному словарю жаргона на примере романа Дороты Масловской «Польско-русская война под бело-красным флагом»)

36%
Nevzorova-Kmech E.
Językoznawstwo
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2022
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vol. 16
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issue 1
49-60
PL
Artykuł dotyczy zagadnień ponadstandardowej leksykografii, a w szczególności żargonu. Przedstawiliśmy główne problemy, jakie napotyka autor słownika przy znalezieniu odpowiednika jednostki żargonowej. W pierwszej części zaprezentowano podstawowe metody przekładu neologizmów frazeologicznych na inny język. Druga część artykułu poświęcona jest historii leksykografii żargonu. Trzecia natomiast zawiera niewielką część materiału zebranego do słownika tłumaczeniowego.
EN
This article is devoted to the issue of substandard lexicography, and jargon in particular. We present the main problems that the compiler of the dictionary encounters when seeking an equivalent in jargon. The first part presents the main methods of transferring phraseological neologisms into another language. The second part of the article contains information about the history of jargon lexicography. The third section contains a small selection of the collected material for the translation dictionary.
RU
В статье рассматриваются вопросы лексикографирования субстандарта, в особенности жаргона. Мы представили основные проблемы, с которыми сталкивается составитель словаря при поиске эквивалента жаргонной единице. В первой части представлены основные способы перевода фразеологических неологизмов на другой язык. Во второй части статьи представлены сведения из истории жаргонной лексикографии. Третья часть содержит небольшую часть собранного материала для переводного словаря.
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Soočanje kultur v dvojezičnem slovaropisju

31%
Srebnik A.
Przekłady Literatur Słowiańskich
|
2014
|
vol. 5
|
issue 1
304-339
SL
Ne samo besedila v prevodu, tudi dvojezični slovarji kot posebna vrsta besedil primerjajo med seboj kulturi izhodiščnega in ciljnega jezika. Prevodne ustreznice v geselskih člankih se nahajajo na kontinuumu med izomorfizmom na eni in anizomorfizmom na drugi strani. Le-ta predstavlja temeljni problem pri iskanju medjezikovne ustreznice. Od mnogoterih delitev ustreznic je za leksikografa najoprijemljivejša »logična« delitev na popolne, delne in ničte ustreznice, slednja pa pri prevajanju predstavlja najtrši oreh. Razumevanje tovrstne odsotnosti ustreznice leksikografa pripelje do povsem konkretnih rešitev v slovarju, kjer mora zaradi narave njegove zgradbe za vsako geslo vedno podati ustreznice, medtem ko prevajalec vezanega besedila posamezno besedo mnogokrat lahko preprosto izpusti, ne da bi to privedlo do izkrivljenega pomena besedila. Na primeru Nizozemsko‑slovenskega slovarja prikažemo strategije podajanja ustreznice v primeru ničte ekvivalence med jezikoma. Spopadanje z anizomorfizmom je pojav par excellence, ki dvojezično leksikografijo v tem pogledu uvršča tudi med primerjalne kulturne študije.
EN
Not only in translated texts but also in bilingual dictionaries as a special sort of texts the cultures of the source and target languages are compared. Translation equivalents in a dictionary range from a continuum between the isomorphism on the one side and the anisomorphism on the other. Anisomorphism presents a crucial problem in finding translation equivalents. Among the plethora of equivalent relationships the most tangible one for the lexicographer is the »logical equivalence relationship« according to which there are three types of equivalence: full, partial and zero equivalence, the latter being the toughest nut to crack. In contrast to a translator who can omit an individual word in a longer stretch of translated text without violating its sense, a lexicographer must provide an equivalent for every single entry word. The examples from the Dutch‑Slovene Dictionary illustrate the different strategies of dealing with the zero equivalence. Solving the problems of anisomorphism is an activity par excellence which places bilingual lexicography also among the comparative cultural studies.
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