This article is an attempt to analyze the functions, which Piotr Skarga gives in parts of Żywoty świetych focused on the martyrdom of Jesuits. Their biographies can be considered as the argument in the current debate on true and false martyrdom. Skarga, referring to the authority of The Bible and the works of the Church fathers, tried to prove that only the Catholic martyrs are the true ones. Persecutions of Jesuits in England, France, and during the missions to India and to the Americas are also an opportunity for Skarga to show how groundless the allegations are against the Jesuits. In the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, they were accused of pernicious influence on king’s political decisions and greed. Author of Żywoty świętych, using the examples from the life and martyrdom of Jesuits attempted to rehabilitate the opinion of his order.
The twentieth century brought many difficult trials to Europe. Lithuania was devastated by two world wars and long and difficult periods of occupation. The Catholic Church was persecuted by both the Nazis and the Soviets. The clergy suffered much. One of the first martyrs during the Soviet occupation was the Bishop of Telšiai, Vincentas Borisevičius. Although there are not many written sources and testimonies about him, we can get a good idea that he grew up in a moral and faithful environment and matured for the priesthood. Borisevičius was entrusted with the duties of the rector of the seminary, later became an assistant to the Bishop of Telšiai, and finally an Ordinary. Bishop Borisevičius demonstrated his heroic virtues during the Second World War by rescuing Jews, by remaining faithful to his flock, and by not cooperating with the occupying powerʼs security structures or betraying innocent people. This is what brought the moment of his arrest and suffering closest. Although murdered, the bishop remained an apostolic example for the Christians of the new times. Because of his virtues and martyrdom, the Church has opened the case for the beatification of Bishop Vincent Borisevičius.
Der Band enthält die Abstracts ausschließlich in englischer Sprache.
EN
The theme of suffering and martyrdom occupies a central place in the history of religion from the earliest time. In the myths of the ancient Near East, the hero is slain, but his death, then, guarantees the revival of life. Sacrifices are means for reaching higher and loftier stages of life; the Biblical and Qur'anic story of Abraham, who so deeply trusted God that he, without questioning, was willing to sacrifice his dear son, points to the importance of such sacrifice. Greek theater, on the other hand, grew out of a religious festival, and was often concerned with the deepest questions about morality and the relationship between mortals, gods, and fate; it was theoretically a temple of the god Dionysus, with his alter in the center. Church history is also rich with examples of art enhancing religious teaching. From the beginning of early churches through to the Middle Ages and beyond, people interact with images, music, ritual symbols and drama. Mystery, Miracle, Morality, which have developed successively, have led to the creation of what is called now "the passion plays of Christ". The passion play is a dramatic presentation which depicts Jesus Christ's passion , his trial, suffering, and death. It is a traditional part of Lent in several Christian denominations, particularly in Catholic tradition. The counterpart of the Christian Passion play in Islamic tradition is the "Ta'ziyeh" which means Condolence Theatre. It commemorates the martyrdom of Imam Hussein, grandson of Prophet Muhammad. As Christ gave his life as a sacrifice for the sake of humanity, Imam Hussein is seen as having sacrificed himself for the sake of Islam. In both traditions the theme of martyrdom is celebrated through literature. The reconnection of Church and drama was a recovery of former state of affairs which had been lost. It was a dream that came true on some modern poetic dramatists. Thus, many poetic plays were written on the theme of martyrdom and sacrifice in Christian traditions. In the Islamic tradition, the tragedy of Karbala inspired some modern Muslim poets to write modern poetic dramas about it. Modern poetic drama succeeded in performing a social function by dramatizing complex states of human spiritual and moral beings and it was the fruit of the seeds planted by Christ passion plays and Islamic T'azyia. It is the role of the poetic plays to show that the true meaning of martyrdom is to sacrifice one's self to give life to others, by making use of the heritage of hundreds of martyrs who sacrificed their lives defending the peaceful life of their countries against those terrorists who have killed life and destroyed peace. It is the most suitable time now for the writers of poetic drama to show through their work the difference between the true and genuine meaning of martyrdom and the deformed one.
FR
Le numéro contient uniquement les résumés en anglais.
RU
Письмо о себе для создания мифа о писателе: Джузе Луиза Пеиксото
Ethnic conflict in the view of classical sociology and social psychology (on the example of south-eastern Borderlands of the Second Polish Republic)The article was designed to demonstrate that social conflicts, especially ethnic ones, which belong to many factors of martyrdom. Thus, it was structured at four points. The considered topics led to the conclusion that the social and ethnic issues belong to the diverse and complex topics. It is shown in theories of classics of sociology and contemporary theoreticians dealing with the ethnic conflicts in the aspect of sociology and social psychology. Konflikty etniczne w świetle socjologii klasycznej i psychologii społecznej (na przykładzie Kresów południowo-wschodnich II Rzeczypospolitej)Celem artykułu jest wykazanie, że konflikty społeczne, zwłaszcza te, które przyjmują postać konfliktów etnicznych, stanowią jedną z wielu przyczyn martyrologii. Artykuł został podzielony na cztery części. Rozpatrywane zagadnienia prowadzą do wniosku, że problemy społeczne i etniczne są zróżnicowane i złożone, jak wykazano w teorii klasyków socjologii oraz współczesnych teoretyków zajmujących się konfliktami etnicznymi z punktu widzenia socjologii i psychologii społecznej.
The study entitled: La missione del sacerdote nel pensiero del beato don Jerzy Popiełuszko – un martire contemporaneo della Polonia (“The Mission of the Priest in the thought of Bl. Jerzy Popiełuszko, a modern priest-martyr from Poland”) explores the theology of priesthood in the light of the thought and example of Bl. Father Jerzy Popiełuszko. The essay covers the following issues: 1) Fr Jerzy Popiełuszko in the context of the times he lived in; 2) The mission of the priest is to be close to God and to people; 3) The mission of the priest is to proclaim the Good News; 4) The mission of the priest is to minister the Sacraments; 5) The mission of the priest is to nurture hope; 6) The mission of the priest is to die for the Faith. The Author concludes that the phenomenon of Fr Jerzy Popiełuszko, which came into its full force after his martyr’s death, allows us to see him as a clear model for modern priests. The blessed martyr from Warsaw reminds us that sanctity can be attained and lived in all historical contexts. Fr Jerzy also comes across as an exemplar of a very engaged shepherd of souls who walked the path to holiness whilst also working closely with many lay people who showed a special readiness to work with him and solicitude for the good of the Church in a world at war against God, the Church and its priests.
EN
The study entitled: La missione del sacerdote nel pensiero del beato don Jerzy Popiełuszko – un martire contemporaneo della Polonia (“The Mission of the Priest in the thought of Bl. Jerzy Popiełuszko, a modern priest-martyr from Poland”) explores the theology of priesthood in the light of the thought and example of Bl. Father Jerzy Popiełuszko. The essay covers the following issues: 1) Fr Jerzy Popiełuszko in the context of the times he lived in; 2) The mission of the priest is to be close to God and to people; 3) The mission of the priest is to proclaim the Good News; 4) The mission of the priest is to minister the Sacraments; 5) The mission of the priest is to nurture hope; 6) The mission of the priest is to die for the Faith. The Author concludes that the phenomenon of Fr Jerzy Popiełuszko, which came into its full force after his martyr’s death, allows us to see him as a clear model for modern priests. The blessed martyr from Warsaw reminds us that sanctity can be attained and lived in all historical contexts. Fr Jerzy also comes across as an exemplar of a very engaged shepherd of souls who walked the path to holiness whilst also working closely with many lay people who showed a special readiness to work with him and solicitude for the good of the Church in a world at war against God, the Church and its priests.
A comparison of Passio Perpetuae 21,2–3 with Martyrium Polycarpi 16,1 and 14,2 suggests a direct relationship between the two texts. The most likely explanation of this relationship is the dependence of Passio Perpetuae upon Martyrium Polycarpi, thus providing a new terminus ante quem for the writing of Martyrium Polycarpi – 213 CE.
The article contains presentation of personal patterns, which might be identified in six Hrosvit of Gandersheim’sdramas (10th century). Based on plots, works were split into three groups: heroic, martyrological and penitential(secluded). Main idea which exists in all Hrosvit’s dramas is meditatio mortis (death rehearsal), which isa tendency characteristic for the Middle Ages.
Katarzyna Citkos article is an analysis of Dagmara Drzazga’s film Bez jednego drzewa las lasem zostanie (Without One Tree, a Forest Will Stay a Forest, 2012), an example of a religious and historical documentary. The article describes the film’s depiction of the tragic fate of Jan Macha, a priest who during the Nazi occupation of Poland organized help for victims of German oppression as a co-founder of the Scout organization Konwalia (Lilly). For his work, he was arrested and executed in a prison in Katowice by means of a guillotine that was installed there in 1941. The article also analyses film-making techniques characteristic to documentaries, as well as the specific forms of expression which situate Drzazga’s work in the realm of religious cinema. These documentary techniques include combining photos and archival documentaries, interviews with people who knew Macha, and the opinions of experts, such as historians, clergymen and journalists. Other interesting techniques employed by the director make it possible to describe the film as belonging to religious cinema of the transcendental style, as described by Paul Schrader, which abandons unnecessary suspense in favour of poetic images; focuses on the dynamics and drama of the events rather than an in-depth psychological analysis of characters’ motivations; interweaves first- and third-person narration, which is carried out by means of both voice-over and by people speaking in the film; uses suggestive image editing combined with music which employs the theme of Agnus Dei. All of these features helped Drzazga’s interesting and thought-provoking film win a number of awards at international Catholic film festivals.
The paper discusses some elements of the tradition of martyrdom among Muslims in northern Nigeria. It describes the basic frameworks of the concept of martyrdom in Islam with special reference to its contemporary usage. Then it discusses the shape of the idea of martyrdom during the times of Usman ɗan Fodio’s jihad. It further examines the concept of martyrdom as presented in the speeches of Muhammad Yusuf, the ideologue of the Boko Haram organisation, as well as its practical implementation in the times of the current rebellion in northern Nigeria.
Nach einer einfuhrenden Erklarung der Begriffe ist der Autor in seinem Artikel darum bemuht, aut die Evolution des wissenschaftlichen Kommentars betreffs der Erlauterung der Leidensinstrumente und Berufszeichen in der Katakombenmalerei und auf den Grabtafeln aufmerksam zu machen.
Both in the past and today an act of bearing witness to faith in God through martyrdom has been a unique sign and testimony of love for Christ who himself was obedient to the Father usque ad mortem. It is at the same time a clear judgment against those cultures, which acknowledge odium fidei. In his moral encyclical Veritatis Splendor John Paul II points to several arguments in order to emphasize that the way of martyrdom has lost none of its relevance and significance for Christians nowadays. The Pope’s claim is grounded on the fact that “faith possesses a moral content” and so it is false to separate faith (credenda) from moral life (agenda) of those who believe. Consequently, in particular circumstances Christians are called to be ready to lay their lives both for love of God and acceptance of his commandments. Through imitating their Lord usque ad sanguinem his disciples demonstrate and defend their human dignity received from the Creator, the holiness of God’s law as well as the holiness of the Church.
PL
Poprzez całe dzieje chrześcijaństwa męczeństwo było szczególnym znakiem wierności wierze w Boga i wyrazem posłuszeństwa na wzór samego Chrystusa. Zarazem było i jest znakiem miłości “do końca” i sprzeciwu wobec każdej kultury, która głosi odium fidei. Jednocześnie w nauczaniu Kościoła dostrzega sie ewolucję rozumienia tego odium, które coraz szerzej obejmuje również kontekst kulturowy czy społeczny. W swojej encyklice moralnej Jan Paweł II wskazuje na kilka szczególnych argumentów na rzecz aktualności i znaczenia postawy męczeństwa, które staje na straży nie tylko samej wiary, ale również życia moralnego tych, którzy wierzą. Wiara i moralność są bowiem nierozerwalne. Stąd świadectwo męczeństwa potwierdza blask prawdy moralnej, a więc zobowiązującą wierność wymaganiom prawa moralnego wypływającym z godności osoby ludzkiej, ukazuje świętość prawa Bożego, a zarazem jawi sie jako znak świętości Kościoła.
Jubileuszowy „Akt przyjęcia Jezusa Chrystusa za Króla i Pana” z 19–20 listopada 2016 roku stawia przed teologami zadanie pogłębienia jego natury i jego treści. W proponowanym wykładzie zajmujemy się przede wszystkim jego podstawową treścią, którą jest królewskość Jezusa Chrystusa. Ponad wszelką wątpliwość wynika z Nowego Testamentu, że Jezus Chrystus jest królem, chociaż w całkowicie szczególnym i najbardziej wzniosłym znaczeniu. Jego królewskość ma przede wszystkim głęboki rys kapłański oraz eschatologiczny. Nie zmienia to jednak faktu, że ma ona konkretny wyraz eklezjalny, którego manifestacją są męczennicy, a następnie wszyscy świeci i dążący do świętości
EN
In the recent years the question of the kingship of Jesus Christ, which has always been present in theology, has gained in significance in Polish theology as a result of various religious and social movements which appeared as attempts to interpret signs of the times, especially the pressures connected with secularisation, which can be observed also in Polish culture. The issue calls for systematic deepening. The article points out, especially the biblical grounds of the royal dignity of Christ, which can be found in the fragments describing His birth, but also His trial ended with the crucifixion. The events of Christ’s life show how He gains universal reign and how it is fulfilled. It is the Christ’s cross that has the greatest significance in this respect. It is the ultimate sign of His kingship and the key reference point of every interpretation of this aspect of His dignity in terms of both its historical realisation and its eschatological fulfilment. It has to be noted, that the kingship of Christ is priestly in character and that it is open to participation in it. Martyrs in the first plays, but also all the Christians may participate in it in the form of imitation since they prolong the redemptive work of Christ in their own life. Christ’s kingship is by all means an open kingship and it makes itself present in the history through His believers.
Violence occupies a regal position in the work of de Sade. It manifests itself in two forms: sexual persecution (excesses, manias, perversions, cruelty) and enlightened reasoning (unabashed promotion of naturalism, rationalism, hedonism and atheism). De Sade uses his most precious instrument as a semblance, by creating a magic spectacle of a gothic novel, and as truth, when he presents himself as a metaphysician and moralist. What kind of reading of de Sade deserves the title of the most adequate one? Does de Sade exist in text only? Is he the liberator, so praised by surrealists? Or does his transgressive nature go beyond the postulates of moral or social-political liberalism and penetrate the sphere of existence, demanding such actions that could be performed only by an individual consciously aiming at its doom? In his theatrum of passions and arguments, de Sade returns to the motif of rivalry between good and evil, simulating various narrative positions: from impulsive libertinism to dark Gnosticism, and reaches for complementary means of expression: from apology of crime to a lyrically tinted martyrological emphasis. Reading de Sade need not cause indignation. If one remembers that he is a transhistorical philosopher, one can deal with him in the way suggested by Chantal Thomas – euphorically. The reading of de Sade, like all other texts, depends on the times; in his case, the best atmosphere is provided by the mental and political atmosphere created by liberal democracy. He can be read there with open mind and physically relaxed, lightly – as becoming for a comoedia.
The article is an attempt to answer the question in what way is Virgin Mary the One who helps humans to accept the reality of death with an open mind and in such a way that makes them grow as well as brings them closer to truth and goodness. This topic seems to be especially relevant in situations in which one tries to escape the very thought of death and at the same time Marian devotion tends to be marginalized. Mary accompanies those who are experiencing their own death or whose loved ones are passing away. Just as she was present at the Golgotha under her Son’s cross, she is present at the end of the earthly life of her adopted children. She protects them from despair, anger and indifference. She helps the witnesses of faith to endure the experience of martyrdom. She encourages sinners to repent. Mary provides comfort in times of spiritual battle. She shows the path of love which retains nothing just for its own sake. She encourages people to support the dying. She invites us to discover the meaning of life and death in Christ. The author tries to reveal various dimensions of the experience of death by combining anthropological and Mariological reflection.
Rather than lamenting a crisis of the Ecumenical movement the author suggests that the reader look at promising paradigms that become apparent within the present changes and challenges of World Christianity. He identifies six promising trends, as Christians of different traditions recognize partners in common witness beyond their own church traditions (1), evangelical and Pentecostal churches rise in significance (2), ecumenism becomes increasingly shaped by biographical experience and personal encounter (3), a spiritual ecumenism for the witness in the world emerges (4), the reality of martyrdom deepens the sense of Christian unity (5) and the search for the truth of the Gospel is not given up (6). In their overlapping and sometimes contradictory evidence these paradigms prove Ecumenism to be alive and, therefore, changing its face.
Francuscy jezuici odegrali znaczącą rolę w pierwszej ewangelizacji rdzennej ludności Ameryki Północnej na początku XVII wieku. Skupili się na ewangelizacji plemion Huronów i Irokezów, które pozostawały w ciągłym konflikcie ze sobą. Posługi ewangelizacyjnej nie łączyli z intere sami handlowymi krajów kolonialnych, zwłaszcza Francji. Po kilkunastu latach byli już w stanie przekazać prawdy ewangeliczne w językach plemiennych, będąc mocno zanurzonymi w lokalnej kulturze. Stali się prekursorami inkulturacji Ewangelii. Misjonarze charakteryzowali się głęboką duchowością chrystologiczną, zakorzenioną w kontemplacji krzyża, dlatego potrafili znosić trudy ewangelizacji. W wyniku przemyślanych strategii mocarstw kolonialnych wywołujących spory plemienne musieli stawić czoła licznym przeciwnościom, co ostatecznie wielu z nich doprowadziło do męczeństwa. Ich misyjny wysiłek stał się drogą do osobistej świętości i niezastąpionym wkładem w umocnienie nowo utworzonych wspólnot kościelnych na amerykańskiej ziemi.
EN
The French Jesuits played a significant role in the first evangelization of the indigenous peoples of North America in the early 17th century. They focused on the evangelization of the Huron and Iroquois tribes which remained in constant conflict with each other. In their work they cut themselves off from the commercial interests of colonial countries, especially of France. After a dozen or so years, they were already able to convey evangelical values in tribal languages, being firmly immersed in the local culture. Thus, they were precursors of the inculturation of the Gospel. The missionaries were characterized by deep Christological spirituality, founded on contemplation of the cross, and, therefore, able to endure boldly the hardships of evangelization. As the result of the vile strategies of colonial powers stirring up tribal disputes, they faced numerous misfortunes, and, ultimately, many of them suffered martyrdom. Consequently, their missionary effort became a path to personal holiness and an irreplaceable contribution to the strengthening of the newly established Church communities on the American soil.
In September 1939 in Działdowo the Nazis established a transit camp for the war prisoners of the Polish September Campaign of 1939 in the former barracks of the 32 infantry regiment on Grunwaldzka Street. At the turn of 1939 and 1940 the police and the SS authorities in Königsberg transformed the Działdowo camp into the transit camp „Durchgangslager“. Priests imprisoned in the Działdowo camp from autumn 1939 to autumn 1941 constituted a special group of political prisoners. The archbishop Antoni Julian Nowowiejski and the bishop Leon Wetmański, Płock bishop suffragan, were brought to the Działdowo camp in 1941. The Płock bishops quickly became spiritual guides and the support for the prisoners in difficult moments of camp life. In order to prevent their contacts with the prisoners, the bishops were put in a separate cell number 12. They were subjected to different kinds of moral and physical torture, including the attempt to profane the cross. Difficult living conditions in the camp soon led to the death of the Płock priests: the archbishop Antoni Julian Nowowiejski died on 28 May 1941 and the bishop Leon Wetmański died on 10 October 1941. Apart from them, 47 priests and 1 seminarian lost their lives in the Działdowo camp in 1939–1945.
EN
In September 1939 in Działdowo the Nazis established a transit camp for the war prisoners of the Polish September Campaign of 1939 in the former barracks of the 32 infantry regiment on Grunwaldzka Street. At the turn of 1939 and 1940 the police and the SS authorities in Königsberg transformed the Działdowo camp into the transit camp „Durchgangslager“. Priests imprisoned in the Działdowo camp from autumn 1939 to autumn 1941 constituted a special group of political prisoners. The archbishop Antoni Julian Nowowiejski and the bishop Leon Wetmański, Płock bishop suffragan, were brought to the Działdowo camp in 1941. The Płock bishops quickly became spiritual guides and the support for the prisoners in difficult moments of camp life. In order to prevent their contacts with the prisoners, the bishops were put in a separate cell number 12. They were subjected to different kinds of moral and physical torture, including the attempt to profane the cross. Difficult living conditions in the camp soon led to the death of the Płock priests: the archbishop Antoni Julian Nowowiejski died on 28 May 1941 and the bishop Leon Wetmański died on 10 October 1941. Apart from them, 47 priests and 1 seminarian lost their lives in the Działdowo camp in 1939–1945.
This paper presents Rev. Jozef Jankowski as an example for young people on the example of the Primary School in Czyczkowy which was named after him. He came from this village and grew there. Father Jozef was active in the priestly ministry between 1936 and 1941. Despite tortures and other forms of persecutions he never renounced his faith in God and his love for neighbour which eventually led him to martyrdom at the Auschwitz concentration camp. His memory is still very much alive in his home village and especially its school. There is abundant evidence for this which has been collected from documents, press articles, event reports and other forms of student activities which foster Rev. Jankowski as a role model for the young generation.
PL
Celem artykułu jest wskazanie bł. ks. Józefa Jankowskiego jako wzoru do naśladowania, szczególnie dla młodego pokolenia dzieci i młodzieży, na przykładzie społeczności Szkoły Podstawowej im. bł. ks. Józefa Jankowskiego w Czyczkowach. Ks. Józef wywodzi się z tej wsi, tam się urodził, wychował, chodził do miejscowej szkoły i żył pośród tych ludzi. Tam budziło się jego powołanie do kapłaństwa, które zrealizował. Czas jego kapłaństwa przypadł na lata przedwojenne – 1936 r. – i wojenne – do 1941 r. Pomimo zawieruchy wojennej, aresztowania, tortur w więzieniu Pawiak w Warszawie, aż po męczeńską śmierć w obozie koncentracyjnym w Oświęcimiu nigdy nie wyparł się wiary w Boga i miłości do drugiego człowieka. Dlatego jest wzorem do naśladowania w każdym czasie. Artykuł wskazuje, że wzór ks. Józefa jest wykorzystywany w społeczności Czyczków, którego szkoła obrała sobie na patrona. Autorka artykułu dotarła do dowodów materialnych i niematerialnych, które świadczą o tym, że jego kult jest wciąż żywy, a uczniowie są wychowywani w oparciu o wartości, które prezentował ks. Józef. Świadczą o tym dokumenty szkolne, artykuły lokalnej prasy, wydarzenia, które są organizowane w szkole, a które są związane z osobą bł. ks. Józefa.
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