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EN
The paper deals with the bankruptcy of enterprises in Poland and the main theoretical aspects of bankruptcy of enterprises in particular. The author analysed correlations between the number of bankruptcies of business entities and selected macroeconomic figures and financial indicators of enterprises in the period 2004–2015. The correlation analysis confirmed the existence of a linear relationship between the number of bankruptcies of enterprises and income from CIT.
PL
Artykuł dotyczy problemu bankructw i upadłości przedsiębiorstw w Polsce. Przedstawiono wybrane aspekty teoretyczne zjawiska bankructw przedsiębiorstw. Zostały przeanalizowane zależności pomiędzy liczbą upadłości podmiotów gospodarczych a wybranymi wielkościami makroekonomicznymi oraz wybranymi wskaźnikami finansowymi przedsiębiorstw w okresie 2004–2015. Analiza korelacji potwierdziła istnienie związku liniowego pomiędzy liczbą upadłości przedsiębiorstw a dochodami z podatku CIT.
EN
The role played by the state in economy is one of the most important problems in economic science. With regard to this role and its importance, it is often forgotten that the state is largely influenced by the cultural values of its citizens. This paper evaluates the role of cultural values in explaining the differences in state tax revenues as percentage of GDP in cross-country perspective. Our results suggest that there is a statistically significant relationship between shared cultural values and taxation (measured by the revenues that are accumulated by the state). Therefore, it seems to be important to take culture into account when designing optimal economic policies and influencing the level of life and well-being.
EN
The article looks at the issue of local taxation in 22 selected European countries, members of OECD, as well as the European Union member states. The author analyses the importance of local taxes for regional and local governments measured by the share of tax revenues received by these governments as a percentage of GDP and percentage of total tax revenues. She also presents the structure of local tax revenues. The study is based on the OECD revenue and taxes in Europe database.
EN
Avoiding paying taxes, if is becomes a common phenomenon, inevitably leads to the collapse of public finances. The aim of this publication is to discuss basic tax estimation, the presentation of the essence of the matter and its efficiency evaluation. The important part of the publication is an analysis of the effectiveness of estimating the tax base on the basis of information provided by a representative group of tax offices. The study included the results of the study group offices in the 2007–2011 period. The paper also evaluated the effectiveness of estimating the tax base in the light of the case law of administrative courts. The study shows the small importance of the institution of estimating a tax base as an effective mechanism for reducing the tax gap in Poland. This shows the need for a further reform of the Polish tax system, to simplify tax structure.
EN
Research background: The 2020 pandemic has proven to be stressful for regional tax systems. However, these systems reacted differently to lockdown and a decline in business activity, which was associated with both their structures and the specifics of their development. Purpose of the article: The aim of the article is to assess the impact of the 2020 pandemic on tax revenues of Russian regions, as well as to analyze the factors contributing to the resilience of regional tax systems to epidemiological crises. Methods: The study is based on monthly data from the Federal Tax Service of the Russian Federation on total tax revenues in 83 Russian regions for 2013?2020. For data up to March 2020, we construct stationary time series and plotted ARiMA regressions. Based on them, we forecast tax revenues for the period from April to December 2020, if there were no pandemic. The impact of the pandemic is calculated as the deviation of actual tax revenue from the forecast for the corresponding 9 months. Findings & value added: We find that the impact of the pandemic on tax revenues varies over time and space. The crisis hit the fiscal system most negatively in the first three full months of the lockdown (April?June 2020). Some mining regions of the Urals, Western and Eastern Siberia, specializing in the extraction of oil and gas, as well as non-ferrous metals, turned out to be the most vulnerable to the pandemic. The most resistant to it are the central and southern regions of the European part of Russia. Calculation of Pearson's correlations shows that the greatest drop in tax revenues occur in regions with a larger share of the mining industry in gross value added and MET in tax revenues, with a higher GRP per capita and an increased level of general economic instability. The smallest decline in tax revenue, or even its growth, is observed in regions with a larger share of personal income tax and property tax in tax revenues, a higher share of trade and processing industries, social sphere and public administration in gross value added, a higher degree of economic diversification and a larger share of small business in total turnover. The obtained results are applicable to manage the resilience of tax systems to epidemiological crises.
EN
The article is devoted to such important indicators and tax policy as local taxes. The article also reviews the role of local budgets in formulating the overall budget of the republican budget, formulating international fiscal budget. The article also reviews the role of local budgets in formulating the overall budget of the republican budget. In the article, the analysis of the model of interbudgetary relations with the Chinese model, the American model, the German model. The comparative table compares the unitary and federation form of the board. The data of Aktyubinsk region’s budget and receipt of the transport tax in the Republic of Kazakhstan were used. The materials are based on current economic development data, current legislation, and also the Address of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan and other regulatory legal acts. Purpose of the study: is to determine the role and importance of local taxes, fees in the formation of the revenue side of local budgets in Kazakhstan and abroad, to consider one of the main tasks of the state revenue authorities to implement the revenue side of the budget, to conduct a comparative analysis of the formation of local budgets in Kazakhstan and abroad Research methods: The methods of scientific research were used in the article: analysis, synthesis, generalization, system analysis, comparative analysis, observation. The following activities were carried out during the research: determination of the role and importance of local taxes, levies in the formation of the revenue side of local budgets in Kazakhstan and abroad, the study of one of the main tasks of the state revenue authorities in the execution of the revenue side of the budget, and the comparative analysis of the formation of local budgets in Kazakhstan and abroad. Results: The results of the survey show that local budgets in Kazakhstan are mainly provided by tax revenues, namely, through local taxes and fees.
EN
Research background: The research is based on the assumption that the sectoral structure of economy has a significant impact on the level and dynamics of sub-federal budget tax revenues. It distinguishes the following sectoral determinants of tax revenues in regions: the levels of tax return and tax absorption, inflation and economic growth in various economic activities. Purpose of the article: We aimed at assessment of contribution of economic activities and their determinants to the increase in tax revenues of sub-federal budgets of the Russian Federation in 2011?2015 compared to 2006?2010. Methods: Development of a four-factor additive-multiplicative model of the tax revenue formation in regions, application of the proportional and logarithm methods of factor analysis to assessment of contribution of various activities and their determinants to increase in tax revenues of sub-federal budgets, evaluation of inter-regional inequality of tax revenues growth based on the weighted coefficient of variation, and decomposition of this inequality using the A. Shorrocks technique. Findings & Value added: We identified activities that made the largest contribution to the increase in tax revenues of the Russian sub-federal budgets. We found that the inflation factor had a predominant positive effect on the growth of tax revenues, while the contribution of the economic growth factor was 4 times less; however, the situation in various activities differed significantly. Generally, changes of sectoral levels of tax return and tax absorption influenced negatively the regional tax revenues. In addition, they moved in opposite direction in the regions. Ultimately, the uneven change in tax returns and price levels in the mining and manufacturing activities of Russian regions made the greatest contribution to inter-regional inequality of the growth of sub-federal budgets tax revenues.
PL
Celem artykułu jest identyfikacja przyczyn znaczącego spadku wpływów z podatku VAT w Polsce w ostatnich latach. Autor zauważa, że co roku wpływy podatkowe są o kilka procent niższe, niż zakłada ustawa budżetowa. Straty budżetu państwa w latach 2008–2012 szacuje się na 90 mld zł, czyli ponad 20 mld zł rocznie. Oznacza to poważne konsekwencje dla stabilizacji finansów pu-blicznych. Autor wymienia następujące przyczyny takiego regresu wpływów podatkowych: stan prawa w Polsce, metody zarządzania podatkiem VAT (nieudolność w wykrywaniu prób uchylania się od podatku), sprzeczne interpretacje podatkowe wydawane przez administrację publiczną, opanowanie procesu tworzenia prawa przez lobbing biznesu branżowego i interesów branżowych. Autor stwierdza, że główną przyczyną destrukcji podatku VAT w Polsce jest proces noweli-zacji prawa. Pod naciskiem grup interesów wprowadzane są przepisy, które często legalizują próby uchylania się od opodatkowania. Przykładem takiego działania jest likwidacja sankcji finan-sowej w 2008 r. Autor podaje kilka przykładów zmian prawa podatkowego wprowadzonych w ostatnich latach, które mają negatywny wpływ na efektywność podatku VAT jako źródła do-chodów budżetowych. Jego zdaniem obecny stan prawny powoduje, że dalsze nowelizacje ustawy o podatku VAT są bezcelowe, pogłębiają jedynie istniejący chaos. Optymalnym rozwiązaniem byłoby uchwalenie nowej ustawy. Projekty takich ustaw już istnieją. Potrzebna jest jedynie po-ważna debata publiczna, która umożliwiałaby wprowadzenie ich w życie.
EN
The purpose of this article is to identify the causes of a significant decline in receipts from VAT in Poland in recent years. The author notes that every year the tax tides are a few percent lower than projected in the Budget Act. The losses of the state budget in 2008–2012 is estimated at 90 billion PLN, more than 20 billion PLN per year. This means serious consequences for the sta-bility of public finances. The author lists the following reasons for the contraction in tax revenues: the state of law in Poland, the methods of managing VAT (inefficiency in detecting attempts of tax evasion), conflicting interpretations issued by the public administration, mastery of the legislative process through lobbying industry business and industry interests. The author states that the main cause of the destruction of VAT in Poland is the process of revising the law. Legislation which often attempts to legalize tax evasion is introduced under pressure from interest groups. An example of such action is to eliminate the financial penalty in 2008. The author gives several examples of tax law changes introduced in recent years, which have a negative impact on the efficiency of VAT as a source of revenue. In his opinion, the current legal status makes further amendments to the VAT law pointless, only deepen the existing chaos. The optimal solution would be to adopt a new law. Projects of such laws already exist. There is only a need for a serious public debate, which would enable them to be implemented.
EN
The objective of the present article was to determine the amount of income from environmental taxes to EU national budgets and the changes that took place over the last 10 years (from 2006 to 2018). In terms of theoretical knowledge, however, an attempt was made to define the theoretical foundations for the functioning of environmental taxes in the EU. It was pointed out that the term ‘environmental taxes’ in the EU terminology is a technical term, not linked to the theoretical assumptions of a Pigovian tax. However, the increasing pressure in the EU to replace environmental taxes with standard taxes is justified by the phenomenon of double dividend. On the basis of Eurostat data, during the period under review a slight increase in the importance of environmental taxes was observed, however, it varies considerably across the EU. It was observed that the amount of payments is strictly connected to the energy consumption. In the largest EU economies, environmental taxes revenues account for between 4.3% and 8.5% of all tax revenues, which, on average, for the EU as a whole accounts for 2.41% of GDP.
PL
Celem artykułu było określenie wielkości wpływów do budżetów państw UE z tytułu podatków środowiskowych oraz zmian, jakie zachodziły w ciągu ostatnich 13 lat (okres 2006-2018). Na gruncie teoretycznym natomiast podjęto próbę określenia podstaw teoretycznych funkcjonowania podatków ekologicznych w UE. Stwierdzono, że określenie „podatki ekologiczne”, występujące w terminologii UE, jest pojęciem technicznym, niezwiązanym z teoretycznymi założeniami podatku Pigou. Natomiast zwiększająca się w UE presja na zastępowanie podatkami ekologicznymi podatków standardowych uzasadniana jest zjawiskiem podwójnej dywidendy. W badanym okresie na podstawie danych Eurostatu stwierdzono niewielki wzrost znaczenia podatków środowiskowych, znacznie różniący się jednak w poszczególnych krajach UE. Zauważono, iż wielkość wpływów z tego tytułu powiązana jest ze zużyciem energii. W największych gospodarkach UE wpływy z podatków ekologicznych stanowią od 4,3% do 8,5% wszystkich wpływów podatkowych, co dla całej UE stanowi średnio 2,41% PKB.
EN
Labour market indicators, such as employment rate, unemployment rate, labour force structure, wages or amount of paid wages, are important factors that can directly impact the tax revenues and therefore are often used in relation to tax revenues estimates. However, in addition to these factors, there are also other macroeconomic indicators that are significantly involved in the amount of tax revenues. This thesis analyses the employment as a decisive macroeconomic indicator of tax revenues in EU member countries. The aim of the thesis is to confirm the significance of the labour market indicator as the decisive factor in tax revenue monitoring by using three models of regression analysis (pooling model, fixed effects model and random effects model). The analysis shows that the employment rate represents the indicator with the greatest impact on the tax revenues, where an increase of the employment rate by 1% led to an increase of tax revenues by € 11,555 million. Other important macroeconomic indicators were gross domestic product and foreign direct investments.
PL
Wskaźniki dotyczące rynku pracy, takie jak stopa zatrudnienia, stopa bezrobocia, struktura siły roboczej i płace są ważnymi czynnikami, które mogą bezpośrednio wpływać na dochody podatkowe, a zatem często są wykorzystywane do szacowania dochodów podatkowych. Oprócz tych czynników istnieją również inne wskaźniki makroekonomiczne, które znacząco wpływają na wysokość wpływów podatkowych. Niniejszy artykuł analizuje zatrudnienie jako decydujący makroekonomiczny czynnik wpływający na dochody podatkowe w krajach UE. Celem pracy jest potwierdzenie istotności rynku pracy jako decydującego czynnika w monitorowaniu dochodów podatkowych za pomocą trzech modeli analizy regresji (model łączenia, model efektów stałych i model efektów losowych). Analiza pokazuje, że wskaźnik zatrudnienia stanowi czynnik o największym wpływie na dochody podatkowe: wzrost wartości wskaźnika zatrudnienia o 1% prowadzi do wzrostu wpływów z podatków o 11 555 mln euro. Innymi ważnymi wskaźnikami makroekonomicznymi są produkt krajowy brutto i bezpośrednie inwestycje zagraniczne.
EN
Source of revenue for municipalities, including the major cities in Poland, among other, are revenues from local taxes. For some of these taxes the legislature has provided by the municipal authorities in the power of taxation. Not all authorities of the municipalities on an equal footing with the exercise of this right, however. The purpose of this study is to determine the degree of exploitation by the authorities, which are selected large cities in Poland, entitlement of taxation powers in relation to property tax. In particular, the analysis of the amount in question will be enacted tax rates and types of excess of the statutory exemptions in force in those cities in 2011. Cities that are the subject of the study were selected not by coincidence. They are the capitals of three strong provinces located in the western part of Polish and recognized centers of metropolitan areas.
PL
Celem niniejszego opracowania jest określenie stopnia wykorzystywania przez organy stanowiące wybranych dużych miast w Polsce uprawnień z zakresu władztwa podatkowego w odniesieniu do podatku od nieruchomości. W szczególności analizie poddana zostanie wysokość uchwalonych stawek tego podatku oraz rodzaje pozaustawowych zwolnień", obowiązujące na terenie tych miast w 2011 roku. Miasta będące przedmiotem badania zostały wybrane nieprzypadkowo. Są one stolicami trzech silnych województw leżących w zachodniej części Polski i centrami uznanych obszarów metropolitarnych.
PL
Celem opracowania jest zanalizowanie dochodów podatkowych oraz zbadanie podobieństwa krajów Unii Europejskiej (UE) pod względem wpływów z tytułu wybranych podatków — głównie VAT, CIT, PIT oraz podatku akcyzowego. Ocenie poddano kraje UE w okresie między 2003 r. (tj. rokiem poprzedzającym największe rozszerzenie UE) a 2012 r. (z uwagi na kompletność danych). Porównano stawki podatków i strukturę dochodów podatkowych w krajach UE, a następnie dokonano oceny ich podobieństwa przy wykorzystaniu narzędzi analizy skupień. Z przeprowadzonej analizy wynika, że proces harmonizacji, który następował w badanym okresie, nie wywarł znaczącego wpływu na upodobnienie się struktury dochodów podatkowych krajów UE. O strukturze tej wydają się nadal decydować np. względy społeczne, ekonomiczne czy historyczne mające wpływ na tworzenie systemów podatkowych w poszczególnych krajach UE.
EN
The aim of this paper is to analyse tax revenues and examine similarities of selected tax revenues (mainly VAT, CIT, PIT and excise duty) in the European Union countries. The analysis of the EU members concerns the period between 2003 (i.e. the year preceding the biggest enlargement of the EU) and 2012 (due to data completeness). Tax rates and the structure of tax revenues in the EU countries were compared and then the cluster analysis was applied to assess the similarity of tax revenues. The analysis suggests that the process of tax harmonization, which took place in the period considered, did not exert a significant impact on the similarity of the structure of tax revenues in the EU countries. The structure seems to be still determined by e.g. social, economic or historical factors, which influenced the tax systems creation in particular EU countries.
PL
Artykuł dotyczy kształtowania przez polskie władze państwowe finansów komunalnych w sytuacji funkcjonowania różnorodnych rozwiązań ustrojowych i systemów finansów samorządowych, odziedziczonych po rządach zaborczych. Trudne położenie finansów państwowych, chaos w przepisach regulujących dochody komunalne, ogrom zadań stojący przed samorządami, w szczególności większymi miastami, postawił je w sytuacji wręcz katastrofalnej. Niniejszy tekst stanowi przyczynek do problematyki z zakresu stosunku władz centralnych do samorządu. Pokazuje naturę tych relacji, przejawiającą się w przerzucaniu na samorządy zadań bez zapewnienia odpowiednich środków na ich realizację. On the history of local government finances. Finances of Polish municipalities at the beginning of reborn statehood (1919–1923) The article deals with the shaping of municipal finances by the Polish government, in the conditions of the existence of mosaics of central and local government finances, inherited from the period of partitions. Difficulties of the state finances, the chaos in the regulations governing communal income, the enormity of tasks facing local governments, in particular of the larger cities, put them in a catastrophic situation. This text contributes to the problem of the relationship between central government and local self-governments. It demonstrates the nature of this relationship, manifesting itself in the delegation of tasks to local governments without providing adequate funds for their implementation.
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