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EN
The article discusses a rather obscure aspect of the presence of persons of Hungarian origin in the Pauline monastery in Jasna Góra.
PL
Artykuł omawia mało znany aspekt obecności osób pochodzenia węgierskiego w klasztorze paulińskim na Jasnej Górze.
EN
This article deals with the interpretation of toponyms and archaeological materials from early medieval Lesser Poland that may be associated with the Hungarians or the Khazar Kabars. So far, they have most often been interpreted as traces of invasions by Hungarians – nomads (single monuments) or the operations of watchtowers they established to control the passes through the Carpathians and subjugated the local Slavic population (the so-called Old Magyar cemetery in Przemyśl) in the late 9th and1st half of the 10th century. It could have been related to their participation in the armed squads of the Piasts or the Rurikiviks, the activities of Hungarian merchants or prisoner-of-war settlements. The dating and interpreting the so-called Old Magyar cemetery in Przemyśl remains an open issue until it is fully developed and the results published.
EN
The aim of this article is to verify the thesis that the parties of the Hungarian minority (SMK, Most-Hid in Slovakia and UDMR in Romania) resist to the catch-all trend. The period from the first free elections to the 2016 elections has been analyzed. The thesis has not been confirmed – the Hungarian national minority parties are catching the catch-all trend, but in the different level. It was shown that the catch-all strategy was much stronger in the Hungarian minority parties in the Slovak party system and an attempt was made to clarify this difference.
EN
In the paper I analyze the description of the way of life of the Hungarians and the local inhabitants of the Carpathian Basin during the Hungarian Conquest in the Hungarian chronicles: Gesta Hungarorum of the Anonymous Notary of King Béla (III) and Gesta Hungarorum of Master Simon of Kéza. The originally homeland of the Hungarians, called Scythia, was described as a rich land full of pastures and rivers inhabited by happy nomadic people. They left their land because of a fame and found on Tisza and Danube a similar country. According to the chroniclers they met between others the Vlachs who were characterised in a pastoral context by them. They lived in the same semi-nomadic way of life, as the former Hungarians, however, they occurred in Transylvania only in the 12th century, when the Hungarians changed their semi-nomadism to sedentarism. Therefore the semi-nomadic way of the Valachian life was noted as their identification factor by the high-medieval chroniclers.
EN
The goal of the study is to summarize shortly the complicated situation of persons of German and Hungarian nationality in Czechoslovakia after World War II on the background of their legislatively set general work obligation. An overwhelming majority of Czechoslovak Germans and Hungarians lost their citizenship due to government measures, losing all their civil, property, social and national rights by it. The study summarizes the basic legislative measures of the Czechoslovak government from 1945 and 1946 concerning persons without citizenship, in this case members of the German and Hungarian minorities who were markedly restricted also in labour-law area. It outlines the issue of forced work obligation of such persons, paying attention particularly to the mass transfer of Hungarians from Slovakia to Bohemia in the capacity as farm workers. The source base of the study consists of legislative documents from the Collection of Acts and Decrees and selected documents from the General Archive of the Czech and Moravian Confederation Trade Unions. The restrictive measures in labour-law area had stronger impact on the Czechoslovak Hungarians whose destiny had not been decided in 1945 and 1946 yet, while most Germans concerned by the restrictive measures in labour-law area were gradually displaced in 1945 and particularly in 1946, so that the Germans had to deal with the burden of the labour-law restriction and forced labour according to the needs of the state only temporarily. In connection with the transfer of the Germans, Czechoslovakia had to deal with growing absence of labour in the labour market, trying to solve it also by acquiring labour from abroad, for example by unsuccessful recruitment of Italian workers.
EN
The Princip cult and what it evokes in HungaryOn the 28th of June, 1914, a consumptive student, Gavrilo Princip, shot and killed prince Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the throne of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. The prince’s wife Sofia was also killed by a stray bullet. In the century that has passed since the assassination, the memory of Princip and the cult constructed around him has been distorted beyond recognition. As local and international politics were altered, so changed Princip’s image. The memory of Princip now evokes strong reactions not only in the South Slav lands, but in Hungary as well. In what follows, we will examine possible sources for the strong reactions evoked by Princip’s memory among Hungarians a century after his act. Kult Principa i co on ewokuje na WęgrzechW dniu 28 czerwca 1914 roku chory na gruźlicę student Gavrilo Princip zastrzelił księcia Franciszka Ferdynanda, następcę tronu monarchii austro-węgierskiej. Od zbłąkanej kuli zginęła także żona księcia, Zofia. W okresie stulecia, które minęło od tego zabójstwa, pamięć o Principie i kult zbudowany wokół niego przeobraziły się diametralnie. Wraz z przemianami polityki lokalnej i międzynarodowej zmieniało się także postrzeganie Principa. Obecnie pamięć o Principie wywołuje silne reakcje nie tylko na ziemiach południowosłowiańskich, ale również na Węgrzech. Autor artykułu docieka, skąd mogą wypływać silne reakcje, jakie pamięć Principa wywołuje u Węgrów sto lat po jego czynie.
EN
Mother Mary in the Rising Sun: A “Ritual Drama” among the Csango HungariansThe paper deals with the origin and symbolism of the multirooted rite of “Looking into the Sun at Dawn,” performed yearly on Pentecost, as a part of the Csíksomlyó indulgence (Şumuleu Ciuc, Romania) organised by the Catholic Church. Predominantly female ethnic Csango Hungarians performed this rite until the 21st century, and in the course of their communal visions they often saw the shape of Virgin Mary in the rising sun. The local Franciscan church shelters a 16th century Mother Mary statue - to which miraculous powers are attributed, reflecting the iconography of Mulier Amicta Sole. The paper concludes that the form of Virgin Mary taking shape in the ritualized communal visions does not only incorporate the concept of the Virgin Mother of God but also the one of the pre-Christian ancestress. By methods of comparative mythology and ritual analysis, employing written sources this paper makes an attempt to present how in their deer chasing origin myth, the Huns and Hungarians worshiped the ancestress in the figure of the doe, which they identified with the sun. The conclusion of the study is that the primeaval connection of the sun with the ancestress was adopted into Christianity reapearing in the ritualized communal visions. Maryja Matka Boża w słońcu o świcie: „dramat obrzędowy” u Csango na WęgrzechArtykuł dotyczy określenia źródeł i symboli niejednorodnego obrzędu „Patrzenia w Słońce o świcie” wykonywanego co roku w trakcie Zielonych Świątek w ramach odpustu w Csíksomlyó (Şumuleu Ciuc w Rumunii), organizowanego przez Kościół katolicki. Obrzędu wykonywanego również dziś, głównie przez kobiety należące do grupy etnicznej Csango na Węgrzech, które w trakcie wspólnych wizji często dostrzegają postać Maryi Panny we wschodzącym Słońcu. W lokalnym kościele oo. franciszkanie przechowują XVI-wieczną figurę Matki Bożej odzwierciedlającą ikonografię Mulier Amicta Sole, której przypisuje się cudowną moc. Autor artykułu wskazuje się, że postać Maryi Panny nabierająca kształtu w zrytualizowanych wspólnych wizjach odnosi się nie tylko do koncepcji Bogarodzicy Dziewicy, ale do jednej z przedchrześcijańskich przodkiń. Dzięki metodom komparatystyki mitologicznej i analizie rytuałów zawartych w źródłach pisanych artykuł ten stanowi próbę omówienia, jak w micie o pogoni za jeleniem Hunowie i Węgrzy czcili tę przodkinię w postaci łani, którą utożsamiali ze Słońcem. Konkluzją artykułu jest to, że pierwotny związek Słońca z ową przodkinią został przejęty przez chrześcijaństwo i przywrócony w zrytualizowanych wspólnych wizjach.
EN
Among other things, the transformation in Romania has allowed for the participation o f the representatives of national minorities in the political system o f state. This is illustrated by the case of Hungarians, who according to the 2011 census account for over 1,237,000 of the population, and that of approximately 37,000 Germans. Both groups take a regular and active part in both national and local elections. Hungarians are represented by the UDMR, a group that wins support in excess o f 5% o f the votes, thus regularly getting over 20 seats in the Chamber of Deputies and approximately ten seats in the Senate. The Germans are represented by the FDGR, with considerably weaker support, which translates into only a single seat in the parliament. Both minorities play a significant role in regional elections, even though the German population is considerably smaller than that o f the Hungarians. The town o f Sibiuis one example o f their electoral success. The significance o f both groups should not be expected to change significantly in the future. Unlike in the case o f the Hungarians, support for the Germans is higher than might be expected from their number. This follows from the fact that the issue of the German minority in Romania has never stirred such tensions as that o f the Hungarians, both in domestic and international relations. Therefore, casting a vote for the FDGR does not have to follow from being a member o f the German minority, allowing the party to win potential voters.
PL
Transformacja w Rumunii umożliwiła m.in. udział reprezentantów mniejszości narodowych w systemie politycznym państwa. Przykładem ilustrującym to zjawisko są Węgrzy, licząc wg spisu z 2011 r. ponad 1,237 mln osób, oraz Niemcy, liczący ok. 37 tys. osób. Obie grupy biorą regularny, aktywny udział w wyborach na szczeblu ogólnopaństwowym jak i lokalnym. Węgrzy są reprezentowani przez UDMR, ugrupowanie osiągające poparcie wyższe niż 5% głosów, co umożliwia regularne posiadanie w Izbie Deputowanych ponad 20, a w Senacie około 10 miejsc. Niemcy są z kolei reprezentowani przez FDGR. Dużo niższe poparcie przekłada się na zaledwie 1 miejsce w parlamencie. Mniejszości te odgrywają istotną rolę w wyborach lokalnych, także Niemcy, przykładem wyborczych sukcesów jest miasto Sibiu. W przyszłości nie należy oczekiwać zasadniczej zmiany w znaczeniu odgrywanym przez obie grupy. W odróżnieniu od Węgrów, poparcie dla Niemców jest wyższe niż liczebność grupy. Jest to pochodnąfaktu, iż kwestia mniejszości niemieckiej w Rumunii nigdy nie wywoływała takich napięć jak Węgrzy, zarówno w stosunkach wewnętrznych, jak i międzypaństwowych. Z tego powodu oddanie głosu na FDGR nie musi się łączyć z przynależnością do mniejszości niemieckiej, co pozwala na pozyskanie wyborców.
EN
Of the defenders of the Przemyśl Fortress about 70% were killed in battle and most of the survivors, regardless of their nationality, were deported to the lands of the Russian Empire. A lot of them were residents of the Kingdom of Hungary. Many Hungarians also fell in the 1914-1915 battles for Galicia and were buried at various war cemeteries scattered all around the region. No wonder then that public discourse has long featured “heroic Hungarians in Galicia”, though this is only part of the story. Hungarian presence in Galicia was also marked by some shameful episodes. The conduct of Hungarian troops between 1915 and 1918 would be remembered by local people as brutal. In memoirs of that time the Honvéd are shown more like barbarian and destructive Huns, even though a few years before people had admired the Hungarian officers’ culture and their attractive uniforms.
EN
The study maps in detail the election results of the joint election list of candidates of both opposition and negativistic Hungarian minority political parties, the Land Christian-Socialist Party (Országos Keresztény Szocialista Párt; OKSzP) and the Hungarian National Party (Magyar Nemzeti Párt; MNP) in the parliamentary election held in May of 1935. The fourth parliamentary election held in 1935 constituted the last election for the Chamber of Deputies and for the Senate of the National Assembly of the First Czechoslovak Republic. The election presaged the turbulent development in the oncoming period that became a crisis period and, at the same time, a fatal period for the First Czechoslovak Republic. The results of the parliamentary election of 1935 brought considerable surprise. The opposition and, above all, negativistic Sudeten German Party (Sudetendeutsche Partei; SdP) became the general winner of the parliamentary election at national level, both in the election for the Chamber of Deputies and in the election for the Senate. The election results of both opposition and negativistic Hungarian minority political parties did not markedly differ from their election results achieved in the preceding election held in 1929. Additionally, both Hungarian parties achieved one mandate less in the Parliament, with 14 mandates in total, but 15 candidates elected from their list of candidates went to the National Assembly, similarly to 1929. Both Hungarian parties had participated in the election of 1935 in coalition together with smaller political subjects of the German minority: with the Union of Germans Settled in Slovakia and Carpathian Ruthenia (Einheit des Bodenständigen Deutschtums in Slovensko und Podkarpatská Rus) and with the Sudeten German Election Bloc (Sudetendeutscher Wahlblock; SdW). That was also a reason for which the election of 1935 allowed voting for the joint list of candidates of OKSzP and MNP also in the electoral regions in the historical countries, i.e. in Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia. One Senate mandate was achieved by a candidate of the Sudeten German Election bloc, SdW, in the electoral region of Brno. But the parliamentary representation of both political parties of the Hungarian minority, as compared to the political parties of the German minority, was virtually negligible – the Hungarian parties achieved 3% mandates in total and in the Senate, 3,3% mandates.
EN
The presentation summarizes the results of two years of oral history research. The aim of the research was to record the recollections of the still living eyewitnesses of the events in the fall of 1944 in Cluj and its surroundings, in settlements that belonged to the southern part of Transylvania during World War II. Several hours of interviews were made in the villages of the regions of Ţara Călatei (Kalotaszeg) and the Transylvanian Plain (Mezőség), and the lecture presents a synthesis of these interviews. They address issues like deportation, atrocities, fleeing, arm usage, Soviet and Romanian detention camps, adventurous escapes, etc.
EN
This paper analyzes historical and cultural contexts of Slovak Romanticism. Slovak Romanticism is the key to understanding basic principles of modern Slovak identity. Du-ring Romantic nationalism, both ongoing stereotypes and an ethnic tension between the Slovaks and the Hungarians were created. It is encoded in the model where a vision of Hungarian cultural superiority and dominance as well as an image of the thousand year-lasting oppresion of the Slovaks in the multiethnic Hungarian Kingdom appears. This paper analyzes crucial works of Slovak literature from this perspective and it also points out 1) a transformation and a destruction of the class and Englightenment models of ethnic convergence, 2) the origination of ethnic tension and conflicts resulting in 1848 Revolution.
EN
At the peripheries of memory: (Non-)memory about the past of Slovak Hungarians in twenty-first-century Slovak literatureThe aim of this article is to analyse the portrayal of Hungarians in the context of the Second World War in twenty-first-century Slovak literature on the example of the novels Stalo sa prveho septembra (alebo inokedy) (It happened on the first of September (or whenever)) by Pavol Rankov (2008) and Nedeľne šachy s Tisom (Sunday chess with Tiso) by Silvester Lavrík (2016). The article argues that the two novels demonstrate two types of forgetting described by Paul Connerton: “repressive erasure” and “forgetting that is constitutive in the formation of a new identity”. I analyse how these types of forgetting functioned in Slovak society, and conclude that the question of the Hungarian minority is becoming less of a taboo in contemporary Slovak literature, even if it still remains at the peripheries of Slovak memory about the Second World War. Na pograniczu pamięci współczesnych – (nie)pamięć o przeszłości słowackich Węgrów w słowackiej literaturze XXI wiekuCelem niniejszego artykułu jest udzielenie odpowiedzi na pytanie, jakie miejsce zajmuje pamięć o Węgrach w kontekście II wojny światowej w słowackiej literaturze XXI wieku na przykładzie powieści Stalo sa prveho septembra (alebo inokedy) Pavla Rankova (2008) oraz Nedeľne šachy s Tisom Silvestra Lavríka (2016). W wybranych przeze mnie powieściach można zaobserwować dwa typy zapomnienia wyróżnione przez Paula Connertona: „represyjne wymazywanie z pamięci” oraz „zapomnienie konstruktywne dla tworzenia nowej tożsamości”. Tym samym w tekstach widoczne są dwa główne sposoby zapomnienia o wydarzeniach II wojny światowej, które istniały w słowackim społeczeństwie. Wynikiem analizy jest stwierdzenie, że kwestia mniejszości węgierskiej we współczesnej literaturze słowackiej przestaje być kwestią tabu, chociaż nadal znajduje się na pograniczach słowackiej pamięci dotyczącej II wojny światowej.
EN
This article is a continuation of the previously published Hungarians as pars aliqua gentis Massagetum. Sources of the late antic and early medieval era scholarship in the work of Thomas of Split (SAMAI 5, 2020, 155-195), which showed, based on Thomas of Split’s linking of the Massagetae ethnonym and the similarities between 9th century Hungarians and the Scythian peoples, the so called Scythian context, i.e. the identification in ancient and medieval writings (after ca. 1266) of the Massageteans with the land lying versus orientem. From the review of the source materials presented in this article, it is clearly visible that since the times of Herodotus the Massageteans have been linked with the Scythians, or the land known as Scythia, the borders of which differ depending on the source. While in ancient literature the location of the Massagetian lands was integrated into the "geographical realities" abounding in various ethnic and geographical names, after the 6th century that view changed and Massageteans were associated with the biblical Magog, son of Japheth and, above all, with the "Scythians", who in the background were identified with the Goths and Gets.
PL
Artykuł stanowi próbę analizy roli, którą Węgry i Węgrzy odgrywali w myśli politycznej i działalności ukraińskich nacjonalistów integralnych w okresie od początku lat dwudziestych po 1941 r. W tekście koncentruję się na myśli politycznej i działalności Organizacji Ukraińskich Nacjonalistów, ale omawiam również poglądy Jurija Łypy na kwestię węgierską. Przeanalizowany materiał prowadzi do wniosku, że stosunek ukraińskich nacjonalistów integralnych wobec Węgier i Węgrów wahał się pomiędzy traktowaniem ich jako drugorzędnego sojusznika i drugorzędnego wroga. Czynnikiem zbliżającym strony było dążenie do rewizji traktatów pokojowych, z kolei punktem spornym, pretensje terytorialne względem Zakarpacia. Na poziomie taktycznym działacze OUN dawali prymat relacjom z Pragą nad stosunkami z Budapesztem. Pewna zmiana w tej kwestii zaszła dopiero w 1933 r., kiedy pozycje OUN nad Wełtawą uległy pewnemu zachwianiu. Po zajęciu Ukrainy Karpackiej przez wojska węgierskie w marcu 1939 r. stosunek ukraińskich nacjonalistów wobec Węgier stał się jednoznacznie wrogi. The article is an attempt to analyze the role that Hungary and the Hungarians played in the political thought and activity of Ukrainian integral nationalists in the period from the early 1920s to 1941. The text focuses on the political thought and activities of the Organisation of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN), but I also discuss the views of Yurii Lypa on the Hungarian issue. The analyzed material leads to the conclusion that the attitude of Ukrainian integral nationalists towards Hungary and Hungarians ranged from treating them as a minor ally to a minor enemy. One factor bringing the sides together was the attempt to revise peace treaties, while a point of contention was the territorial claims on Carpathian Ruthenia. At the tactical level, OUN activists gave relations with Prague primacy over relations with Budapest. There was only a change in this regard in 1933, when the OUN’s positions on the Vltava were somewhat shaken. After the occupation of Carpathian Ruthenia by the Hungarian army in March 1939, the Ukrainian nationalists’ attitude towards Hungary became unequivocally hostile.
PL
Życie kulturalne i społeczne w sposób oczywisty przyczynia się do kształtowania samoświadomości w obrębie społeczności, która poprzez akt kultury asertywnie zaznacza swoją obecność na polu stosunków międzynarodowych. Jednocześnie kultura stanowi czuły barometr życia społeczno-gospodarczego i politycznego, dzięki któremu można zidentyfikować szereg istotnych czynników odbudowy i rozwoju narodów. W okresie międzywojennym społeczeństwo rumuńskie stanęło w obliczu złożonej sytuacji spowodowanej rozległymi zmianami społeczno-politycznymi, gospodarczymi i kulturowymi, które nastąpiły po zakończeniu I wojny światowej. Konsekwentnie realizowano promocję interesów rumuńskiego państwa narodowego i kultury masowej w skali całego kraju. Tendencje te były również widoczne w historycznej prowincji Crişana, z miastem Oradea jako jej centrum. W nowym kontekście uzasadniony nacisk położono na projekt kulturotwórczy społeczeństwa rumuńskiego, o co zaapelowano do głównych instytucji państwowych oraz licznych stowarzyszeń i zjednoczeń kulturalnych utworzonych po 1918 r. Tym samym program rozwoju kulturalnego i gospodarczego miał być realizowany w jak najszerszej skali społecznej. W ogólnym rozrachunku edukacja szkolna i organizowane imprezy kulturalne zaowocowały wieloma pozytywnymi wynikami w społeczeństwie Oradei. Znacznie zmniejszył się odsetek analfabetów, zwłaszcza na wsi. Utworzenie sieci szkół w powiecie Bihor oraz intensywna działalność konferencyjna wspierana przez specjalistów pozwoliły nie tylko na społeczno-kulturalną aktywizację chłopów, ale także na zrozumienie niektórych zjawisk społeczno-gospodarczych i kulturowych zachodzących z nadspodziewaną szybkością w społeczeństwie międzywojennym.
EN
Cultural and social life clearly contributes to accentuate the self-awareness within a community that, through the act of culture, asserts itself in the field of international relations. At the same time, culture represents a sensitive barometer for socio-economic and political life, through which a series of vital factors can be identified in the process of recovery and development of nations. In the interwar period, Romanian society faced a complex situation, generated by the extensive socio-political, economic and cultural changes that occurred after the end of the Great War. The promotion of the interests of the Romanian national state and of mass culture at the level of the entire country was pursued with consistency, this reality also manifesting itself in the historical province of Crişana, with the city of Oradea as its center. In the new context, a justified emphasis was placed on the culturalization project of Romanian society, for which an appeal was made to the main state institutions and the numerous cultural associations and reunions organized after 1918. Thus, the cultural and economic development program was intended to be implemented on a social scale as wide as possible. In a general view, the schools and organized cultural events led to a series of positive results, accepted as such by the society of Oradea. First of all, the percentage of illiteracy, at alarming levels at the beginning of 1920, was significantly reduced, especially in the countryside. The network of schools in Bihor County, together with intensive conference activity, supported by specialists, allowed not only the enablement of the peasantry in socio-cultural life, but also the understanding of some socio-economic and cultural phenomena that took place with an overflowing rapidity in the interwar society.
EN
In the process of forming European nations, peoples that were deprived of their statehood by the empires, demanded a revision of their status, and the Slovaks made an attempt to reach recognition of their national and social rights. In the context of the national-cultural Slovak paradigm, its own ethnic interest dominated over the idea of civil society. Therefore, the Slovak movement practice was gradually complemented by the plan to establish its ethnic integral potential through its emancipation within the framework of the monarchical Austrian system. Under conditions of a mosaic imperial ethnic structure, the attempt to realize its national idea during the Spring of Peoples led to the attachment of such a form of social behavior among the Slovaks, which determined the ethnopolitical caution and world-view mimesis of the Slovak ideologists. Accordingly, the modernization of the national Slovak ideology continued to depend heavily on the spread of the supranational idea of "Austria" with its "united imperial people," as well as on the further practice of implementing the regional ideological construction of the Hungarian political nation’s formation. At the same time, despite the difference in their integration scale, the first etatist model was designed for the introduction of Slovaks into Danube Monarchy, and the second – for the construction of the Hungarian national state. In general, in the hierarchy of socio-political values of the Slovak national ideologists during the period of the revolution of 1848–1849, the idea of territorial autonomy was at the top of the agenda, and cultural emancipation and language protection continued to be the priority tasks of the Slovak national-cultural movement.
EN
The aim of this text was to compare policy of Central European towards national and ethnic minorities over the period of fifteen years (1989–2004). Besides Poland, Czechoslovakia (since 1993 Czech Republic and Slovakia) and Hungary are countries of quite different ethnic and national structure. Poland is a unique country due to its’ almost mono-ethnic population when comparing to Czech, Slovakia and Hungary, countries with a large Romani and in case of Slovakia also Hungarian minority. The period of communism 1945–1989 in all fields of political, social and economic life was under the dictate of Soviet Union. This applied to minorities issues as well. The changes which started in 1989 was a freely chosen way of political elites and societies of Czech, Hungary, Poland and Slovakia. Although the membership criteria of the EU (so-called Copenhagen Criteria) consisted inter alia of a criterion in favour of respecting the rights of national, ethnic and language minorities. It was a kind of “double standards” by the EU. The text analyses the impact of EU and other international actors on policies of Prague, Bratislava, Budapest and Warsaw in the field of national minorities rights during the accession preparations. It was significantly reduced after the full membership of Czech, Hungary, Poland and Slovakia after the 1st of May 2004.
PL
Celem tego artykułu jest porównanie polityk państw Europy Środkowej wobec mniejszości narodowych i etnicznych na przestrzeni piętnastu lat (1989–2004). Ponadto Polska, Czechosłowacja (od 1993 r. Czechy i Słowacja) i Węgry są krajami o zróżnicowanej strukturze narodowej i etnicznej. Polska jest wyjątkowym krajem z racji swej niemalże homogenicznej struktury etnicznej ludności w porównaniu do Czech, Słowacji oraz Węgier, krajów z liczną mniejszością romską, a przypadku Słowacji również z mniejszością węgierską. Okres komunizmu w latach 1945–1989 stał pod znakiem dyktatu Związku Radzieckiego we wszystkich dziedzinach życia politycznego, społecznego i gospodarczego. Dotyczyło to również spraw mniejszości. Przemiany, które nastąpiły w roku 1989, były wolnym wyborem elit politycznych oraz społeczeństw Czech, Polski, Słowacji oraz Węgier. Jednakże kryteria członkowskie UE (tzw. kryteria kopenhaskie) zawierały m.in. wymóg przestrzegania praw mniejszości narodowych, etnicznych i językowych. Były to swego rodzaju „podwójne standardy” ze strony UE. Poddano analizie wpływ UE oraz innych aktorów międzynarodowych na politykę Bratysławy, Budapesztu, Pragi i Warszawy w dziedzinie praw mniejszości narodowych w okresie przygotowań do członkostwa. Uległ on znacznemu zmniejszeniu wraz z pełnym członkostwem Czech, Polski, Słowacji oraz Węgier dnia 1 maja 2004 r.
PL
W artykule została omówiona problematyka heterostereotypów, jakie są tworzone przez węgierskich studentów wobec wybranych grup narodowych i etnicznych w kontekście bezpieczeństwa kulturowego. W artykule przedstawiono wyniki badań ankietowych przeprowadzonych wśród studentów Eötvös József Főiskola w Baja na Węgrzech.
EN
The article has discussed the issue of heterostereotypes, which are created by the Hungarian students towards selected groups of national and ethnic in the context of safety culture. The article presents the results of surveys conducted among students of the Eötvös József Főiskola in Baja Hungary.
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